现代语言学 笔记

Introduction

一、Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 二、The scope of linguistics

1、phonetics: How speech sounds are produced and classified.

2、phonology: How speech sounds form systems and function to convey the meaning

3、morphology: How morphemes are combined to form words

4、syntax: How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences 5、semantics: The study of meaning (in abstraction.) 6、pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use

7、sociolinguistics :The study of language with reference to society

8、psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to working of the mind

9.applied linguistics: the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.

三、Some important distinction in linguistics

1、descriptive(描述性) :A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.

2、prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for ―correct‖ behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.

1、synchronic(共时语言学): It refers to the study of variation in language in different places and among different groups at a given point in time.

2、diachronic (历时语言学): Studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.

1、speech2、writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.

1、langue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.

2、parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.

1、competence(语言能力):As the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language

2、performance(语言应用):the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.

四、What is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

Language is a system i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.

Language is arbitrary .because the fact that different languages have different words for the some object.

Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.

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Language is symbols.

The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.

五、design features(识别特征)

Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. There are twelve design features, but this book only tell us five of them.

Arbitrariness: there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds .A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language, but it is not entirely arbitrary.

Productivity: language make possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it users. Productivity is unique to human language.

Duality(二重性):Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.

Displacement: Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in past, present or future. or in far-away place. In other words, language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of speakers. Phonology 一、phonetics

The speech and writing are two media or substance used by natural language as vehicles for communication.

Linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs.

Phonetics is defined as the study of phonic medium of language. It‘s concerned with all sounds that occur in the world‘s language.

Phonetics looks at speech sounds from 3distinct but related point of view. They are:

Articulation phonetics(发音语音学):How a speaker uses his speech organs articulate the sounds.

Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）:How a hearer perceives the sounds. Acoustic(声学语音学）:How the sounds are transmitter.

Organs: pharyngeal cavity– the throat oral cavity—the mouth nasal cavity—the nose

Voiceless: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration.

Voicing: sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating Broad transcription: the transcription with the letter-symbols only

Narrow transcription: the transcription with the letter-symbols and the diacritics. English sounds can be classified two categories: vowels and consonants

Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of

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the air steam at some point of the vocal tract.

Vowels: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction. Phonology: the study of sound system—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.

Phonetics and phonology: are studies of speech sounds. Phonetics is interested in all speech sound in the world‘s language: how they are produced and classified. Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns, and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone(音素): Is defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don‘t.

Phoneme（音位）: It is basic unit in phonology; it is collection of distinctive phonetic features.

Allophone（音位变体）:Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones of that phoneme.

Phonemic contrast(音位对立);Complementary（音位互补）;Minimal pair（最小对立）:Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. Some rules in phonology: 1Sequential rules,

2Assimilation rules (one sound to another by ―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus make the two phones similar) 3Deletion rule (it tell us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.)

Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .the main suprasegmental features are: stress, tone, intonation. Morphology

It is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules that form the words.

Morphology is two sub-branch: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.

Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language. (A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.)

Type of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes (include root and affixes)

Free morphemes: are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. For example: boy.

Bound morphemes: can not be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

Roots: A root is often seen as a part of a word, it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. Such roots are numerous in English for example: \"geo-―bears the meaning of ―the earth‖. When it combines with another root

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―-ology‖meaning ―a branch of learning‖, we got the word ―geology‖ which means ―the study of the earth‘s structure.

Affixes are two types: inflectional affixes (inflectional morpheme) and derivational affixes.

Inflectional affixes: manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. -(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns.

-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense. -(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons. -ing, indicating progressive aspect.

-er, indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs. -est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs. -‗s, indicating the possessive case of nouns.

Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative.

The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem Affixes can be divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.

Suffixes at the end of a word, are added to the end of stems. They modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. Compounding is popular and important way of forming new words in English. In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed ad the addition of affixes to stems to form new words, and compounding the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words. Features of compounds

1.orthographically(拼写特征): a compound can be written as one with or without a hyphen, or as two separate words. For example: armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.

2.syntactically(句法特征): the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. For example: ice-cold (adj.) greenhouse (noun).

3.sematically（语意特征）: the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of the meanings of its components. For example: a blackleg is not a leg that is black, it means cheater

4.phonetically（语音特征）: the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress. Syntax

Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.

Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists

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of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences Sentence structure

Subject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate. Type of sentence

1. The simple sentence: a simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example: John reads extensively. Mary decided to take a linguistics class the next semester.

2. The coordinate sentence: a coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as ―and‖, ―but‖, ―or‖. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. In another words, each clause is separable from the other and can stand on its own as a structurally independent sentence.

3. The complex sentence: a complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one which is incorporated into another. That is, the two clauses in complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinated, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called matrix clause.

Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1. an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as ―that‖,‖ if ‖.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes. Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)

Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.

Syntactic categories: 1. lexical categories (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories) 2. Phrasal categories (lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)

Grammatical relations(语法关系) the structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.

S-structure(表层结构): A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.

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X-bar: a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrase structure rules into a single format: x‖—(spec) X (comp.)

General grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural language.

Move α:A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.

Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning:

1. The naming theory. One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. The words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.

2. The conceptualist view(意念论): was holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation（解释） of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This view is suggested by Ogden and Richards.

3.Contextualism(语境论)：contextualism is based on the presumption(假定)that one can derive(推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable(可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized, the situational context and the linguistic context.

4. Behaviorism(行为主义论): behaviorism refers to the attempt(企图) to define the meaning of a language form as the ―situation in which the speaker utter it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖(Bloomfied,1933). This theory somewhat close to contextualism emphasizes on the psychological response. Sense and reference

Reference（所指意义）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

Sense(意义):Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Major sense relations:

1.synonymy(同义): refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Synonymy can be divided into the following groups:

①Dialectal synonyms(地域性同义词)---synonyms used in different regional dialects. These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Such as: American English and British English.

②Stylistic synonyms (文体同义词)--- synonyms differing in style. Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality(礼节). Such as: old man ,daddy, father.

③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning. ④collocational synonyms(搭配上的区别)

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⑤semantically different synonyms(语意上的差别)。 Surprise and amaze

2.polysemy(多义)：refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning. For example: table 1 a piece of furniture 2 all the people seated at a table 3 the food that is put on a table ….

3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意)：homonymy refers to the phenomenon(现象) that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical (相同的)in sound or spelling , or in both.

Homophones(同音异意):refer to two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain/ reign

Homographs(同形异意):refer to two word are identical in spelling, e.g. tear n./tear v.

4.hyponymy(上下关系):refers to the sense relating between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.

Componential analysis(成分分析法): is a way propose by the structural semanticists(语义学者) to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

Predication analysis(述谓分析法): is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions,questions,commands ect. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate(relation element). The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument.

What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless(无意义的)?

Grammaticality—the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all.

Presupposition(先设前提): is a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. e.g. A: John‘ watch needs repairing. B: John has a watch. If A is true, B must be true.

Entailment(蕴涵):can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. e.g. A : Mark married a blonde (金发碧眼的)heiress（女性继承人）. B: Mark married a blonde. A isT then B is T, B is false, A is false; A is false, B is not false. Pragmatics

Pragmatics is a comparatively(比较的)new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics. A general definition of pragmatic is the study of how speakers of a

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language use sentences to effect successful communication.

Context(语境): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted(构成)by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

Sentence meaning(句子意义): refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studies as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.

Utterance meaning(话语意义):refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. It becomes an utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used).

Constative(表述句):are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and connotative (内涵的)bearing the truth-value.

Performatives(行为句): are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable(可证实的), in other words, performatives are utterance that ―do things‖.

Locutionary act(言内行为): is the act of uttering words, phrase, clauses. It is the act conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lection and phonology. Illocutionary act(言外行为): is the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

Perlocutionary act(言后行为): is the act perform(执行) by or resulting from saying something; it is the act performed by saying something.

The classification of illocutionary acts: is suggested and formulated by John.R. Searle, the student of John Austin. According to Searle, speech acts fall into true general categories and each type has a common, general purpose:

1. Representative(表述句): stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.

2. Directives(指令句): trying to get the hearer to do something.

3. Commissives(受约句): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action

4. Expressives(表情句): expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state. 5. Declarations(宣布句): bring about immediate changes by saying something. Speech act theory(言语行为理论): it is proposed by J.Austin and his student J.Searle, is a theory about language used to ―do things‖. Typical utterances are ― I do ‖,‖I name the ship Elizabeth‖, ―I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow‖. In these cases the uttering of the relevant(有关联) words is the leading event, without the action specified can not be done.

The concept of constatives(确认事实的) performatives, the Locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the Perlocutionary act and the five categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Seale constitutes the speech act theory. Co-operative principle/cp(合作原则): proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to

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cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. The principle has the following for maxims:

1. the maxim of quantity: (a). make your contribution as informative as required.(b).do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 2. the maxim of quality: a. do not say what you believe to false. B.do not say for which you lack adequate evidence.

3.the maxim of relation: be relevant (有关联的)

4.the maxim of manner: a. avoid obscurity(含糊)of expression. B. avoid ambiguity（多意的）.(c.) be briefed. be orderly (顺序).

Conversational implicatures(会话含义): according to P.Grice, refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker‘s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxim of the CP. Historical linguistics

Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. Historical linguists are concerned with the historical development of languages and the processes involved in language change. Historical linguists look into the nature of language change and the cause that lead to language change. Major periods in the history of English:

English has undergone dramatic changes throughout the three major periods of Old English (449-1100), Middle English (roughly from 1100-1500),and modern English(1500 to the present).

Linguistic change: is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change.

The Great Vowel shift a series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies(差异) between English pronunciation and its spelling system.

Apocope(尾音消失) the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.. such as ―name‖

Epenthesis (插音字) the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound or the middle of a word.

Compounding: is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit. Such as sailboat, two-year-old

Derivation: refers to the process by which new words are formed by addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words. Such as finalize

An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words. Such as WTO

Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words. Such as smog (smoke +fog)

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. Such as TV (television)

Clipping is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. Such as e-mail (electronic mail)

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Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word. Such as edit (editor)

Coinage refers to the invention of a new word, often formed the brand-name or trade-mark of a product. Such as kodak

Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. As language changes over time, the naming of a word may deviate(脱离) from its original denotation(指示) through the process of semantic broadening or narrowing., another is semantic shift.

Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlied denotation. Such as ―dog‖ in Old English it refers to ―hunting‖. ―aunt‖ only refer father‘s sister in Old English.

Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. Such as hund now refer only a special dog.

Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word losses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning. Such as ―silly‖, a ―silly‖ person was a happy person in Old English, and a naive person in Middle English, but has become a foolish person in Modern English.

Language family: a group of historically (or genetically) related language that have developed from a common ancestral language.

Protolanguage :the original form of a language family which has ceased (停止)to exist.

Historical and comparative linguistics: the study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone

There are four language families are: Indo-European Family, Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family. The causes of language change:

1.sound assimilation: refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. 2.Rule simplification and regularization: are type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.

3.internal borrow: The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation. 4.Elaboration

5.sociological triggers 6.cultural transmission

7.childrean‘s approximation toward the adult grammar: Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language in social context.

Social groups refers to the speakers in sociolinguistic studies.

Speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community,and share the same language or a particular variety of language.

Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker

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or group of speakers.

Socialect refers to a variety of language by people belonging to a particular social class.

Register refers to a functional speech or language variety that involves degree of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.

Standard language refers to a variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.

Lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native language or dialects.

Pidgin is a mixed or blended language used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. It has limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures.

Diglossia (双言现象)refers to a sociolinguistic situation in which in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation.

Code-switching refers to a bilingual speaker often uses two language alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker.

Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation.

An ethnic dialect(or ethnic language variety) is a social dialect of a language,ofthen cutting across regional differences. It is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation,such as racial discriminarion or segregation.

Domain(使用域)refers to a phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common, that is, a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations, for example the Home Domain,Employment Doman…

Linguistic tattoo(禁忌语) refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the ―polite‖ society from general use, such as obscene, profane and swear words…. Euphemism(委婉语) is a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect,or less offensive and sued as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression.such as go away – die

Speech variety also known as language variety, refers to ang distinguisdable form of speech used by a speeker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical phonological, morphological,syntanctic, or a combination of linguistic features.

Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness. Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind,with focus on

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the processes of language production, comprehension and acquisition.

Cerebral cortex is the outside surface of the brain which receives message from all the sensory organs and where huaman cognitive abilities reside.

Brain lateralization refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in particular hemisphere of the brain.

Linguistic lateralization is the hemispheric specialization or dominance for language.

Di chotic listening(两耳分听)refers to a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and langugage,with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are than asked to repeat what they hear and find that a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.

The critical period is an early period of one‘s life extending to the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions.

The Sqpir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguistis Sapir and Whorf. This hypothesis states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.

Subvocal speech is a term used to thought when thought and language are identical or closed parallel to each other . Language centers

Broca‘s area , Wernicke‘s area and the angular gyrus. Language acquisition

Language acquisition is concerned with langugage development in humans. Refers to the development of the children‘s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language. I.e. how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.

Input refers to the language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.

Behaviorist learning theory, a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner‘s Verbal behavior is conditioned or reinforced through association between Stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition.

Telegraphic speech refers to the early speech of children. It is so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegram. such as nonsubstantive words and inflectional morphemes.

Language transfer refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative.

Interference refers to the use of one‘s first Language rule which lends to an error or in appropriate form in the target language. It is also called Negative transfer.

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Contrastive analysis refers to a comparative procedure use to establish linguistic differents between two language so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner‘s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference.

Error analysis approach shows that these are striking similarities in the way in which different L2 Learners acquire a new language and a large proportion of developmental type of errors in learner‘s L2 utterances provide support for the claim that these similarities point to a natural route of L 2 development which resembles that reported for L1 development.

Interlanguage refers to the approximate language system a second language learner constracts which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language.

Fossilization refers to the cause of the learner‘s interlanguage. That is in second language learning the incorrect linguistic features such as the accent or a grammatical pattern because a permanent of the way a person speaks or writs in the target language.

Acculturation refers to the process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.

Over-extension refers to the fact that Children over-extend early words, such as ―Daddy‖‖Munny‖,as a result they are likely to call all men daddy and all women mummy.

Integrative motivation(介入性学习动机) refers to the aim of a second language learners to integrate himself or herself of which the second language community .

Instrumental motivation(工具性学习动机)refers to the learner‘s desire to learn a second language because it is a useful functional instrument,such as getting a job ,passing an examination or reading for information.

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