Pre-school Education

Pre-schoolEducation:parents’preferences,knowledgeandexpectations

EnseignementPrescolaire:preferences,connaissancesetattentesdesparent

Educacio´nPreescolar:preferencias,conocimientoyexpectativasdelospadres

HUGHFOOT,CHRISTINEHOWE,BILLCHEYNE,MELODYTERRAS&CATHERINERATTRAY

DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofStrathclyde,40GeorgeStreet,GlasgowG11QE,UK

ABSTRACTConstructivepartnershipsbetweenpre-schoolserviceprovidersandparentsneedtobeestablishedonthebasisofaclearunderstandingofwhatparentswantandexpectfortheirchildrenfrompre-schoolprovision.Aquestionnairesurveyto911parentsacrossScotland,togetherwithin-depthinterviewswith91parentsintheGlasgowarea,elicitedinformationconcerningpreferences,beliefs,knowledgeandexpectationswhenchoosingsuitableprovision.Resultsshowedthatparentsprioritisethesafetyandcareoftheirchildrenaboveallelseandthat,beyondthis,selectionoftypeofprovision(playgroup,localauthorityorprivatenursery)dependsupontherelativevaluetheyattachedtoeducation,setting,convenienceandmeetingparents’needs.Resultsareconsistentwiththetheoryofplannedbehaviourthatpredictingactualchoiceofprovisiondependsuponparents’knowledge,strengthofdesiretoplacetheirchild,socialsupportandperceivedcontroloveravailableoptions.

´SUME´DespartenariatsconstructifsentreprestatairesdeservicespreRE´scolairesetparentsdoiventeˆtree´tablissurlabased’unecompre´hensionclairedecequelesparentsveulentetattendentdesprestationspre´scolairespourleursenfants.Lesre´ponsesa`unquestionnairede911parentsdanstoutel’Ecosse,ainsiquedesentretiensapprofondisavec91parentsdelare´giondeGlasgow,ontpermisdede´gagerdesinformationssurlespre´fe´rences,lescroyances,lesconnaissancesetlesattentesdesparentschoisissantuneprestation.Lesre´sultatsontmontre´quelesparentsdonnentlapriorite´a`lase´curite´eta`l’accueildeleursenfantspar-dessustout,etque,apre`scela,lase´lectiondutypedeprestation(garderie,cre`chemunicipaleouprive´e)de´penddesvaleursrelativesqu’ilsattachenta`l’e´ducation,aucadre,aucoˆte´pratiqueeta`lacapacite´delastructurea`re´pondreauxbesoinsdesparents.Lesre´sultatscon󰁂rmentlathe´orieducomportementbase´surunobjectifquipre´ditquelechoix

ISSN0966-9760print;ISSN1469-5463online/00/0301-162000Taylor&FrancisLtd

190H.Footetal.

deprestationde´penddesconnaissancesdesparents,delaforcedeleurde´sirdeplacerleurenfant,dusoutiensocialetdeleurperceptiondeleurcontroˆlesurlesoptionsdisponibles.RESUMENLasasociacionesconstructivasentrelosproveedoresdeserviciopreescolarylospadresdebenestablecerseenbaseaunentendimientoclarodeloquelospadresquierenyesperandesushijosysuprovisio´npreescolar.Unaencuestarealizadaa911padresdeEscocia,juntoconunasentrevistasexhaustivasde91padresdelazonadeGlasgow,aporto´informacio´nsobrepreferencias,creencias,conocimientoyexpectativascuandoseescogeunaprovisio´nadecuada.Losresultadosdemostraronquelospadresponenenprimerlugarlaseguridadycuidadodesusnin˜os,porencimadecualquierotracosa,yque,despue´s,laseleccio´ndeltipodeprovisio´n(grupodeactividades,autoridadeslocalesoguarderi´asprivadas)dependendelvalorrelativoqueagreganalaeducacio´n,posicio´n,convenienciayasatisfacerlasnecesidadesdelospadres.Losresultadossonconsistentesconlateori´adecomportamientoplani󰁂cado,quedicequepronosticarunaseleccio´nactualdeprovisio´ndependendelconocimientodelospadres,intensidaddedeseodecolocarasuhijo,asistenciasocialycontrolpercibidosobreopcionesdisponibles.INTRODUCTION

Itiswidelyacknowledgedthat‘pre-schooleducationshouldbeamonganation’s󰁊rstpriorities’(Ball,1994).GovernmentintheUKis󰁊rmlycommittedtoaNationalChildCareStrategytointegratechildcareandearlylearningservices,toenhancethequantityandqualityofpre-schoolprovisionandtotacklesocialexclusionfromtheearliestage(SOEID,1997).Ithasful󰁊lleditspledgetomakeapart-timeeducationplaceavailable,freeofcharge,toeverychildinthepre-schoolyearbythewinterof1998/1999andisnowsettingnewtargetsfor3-year-olds,toplaceyoungchildreninthe‘bestpossiblepositiontomakeprogress’(Governmentspokesman,Radio4,August1999).

However,thesuccessofthisstrategycannotsimplybemeasuredbydeliveryofsuf󰁊cientfreeplaces.Quantitydoesnotguaranteequality,andqualityitselfismultifaceted.Itcanbemeasuredonavarietyofdimensions,e.g.achievementofthechild,adequacyoffacilitiesandstaff–childratios(Elfer&Wedge,1996;Mooney&Munton,1998).Importantly,italsodependsontheextenttowhichprovisionlivesuptotheexpectationsofthestakeholdersthemselves,especiallytotheexpectationsandvaluesofparents.Parentsarestilltheprimaryeducatorsoftheirchildren(SOEID,1997)andhavelegalresponsibilitiestoensurethattheirchildrenreceiveasuitableeducation(Parents’Charter,1995),aswellasarighttochildcare(Nisbet&Watt,1994).

Emphasisuponmeetingtheexpectationsofparentsinpre-schooleducationclearlyimpliesgreaterinvolvementbyparents.Thisinvolvementhasemergedasawidespreadresponsetoincreasedpressureforreformanddemocratisationacrossthewholeeducationalspectruminmanycountries,suchastheUK,AustraliaandNorway(Rust&Blakemore,1990;Dimmocketal.,1996).IntheUSparentalinvolvementhasstemmedfromconcernsaboutsocialjustice,particularlyinrelationtofederalinitiativesaimedatpromotingequityandequalityamongthepoor,Blacks,disabledandotherminorities(Berger,1991;Dimmocketal.,1996).

Howevertherehasalsobeenconsiderabledebateabouttheprecisenatureofthisinvolve-ment(cf.Clark,1988;David,1993;Ball,1994).Centraltothisdebateisthefundamentaldilemmaofparents,ontheonehand,beingstakeholdersinshapingandmanagingprovisionand,ontheotherhand,beingrecipientsofaservice.

Inpractice,thetraditionalviewofparentspurelyas‘consumers’haslargelygivenwayto

Parents’Preferences,KnowledgeandExpectations191

recognisingthemaspartners,andundeniablybestowinguponthemastrongervoice.Therhetoricofpartnershipisverycompelling:

Realpartnershipdemandsasharedsenseofpurpose,mutualrespect,andwillingnesstonegotiate.Itrequiresopen,regularandreciprocatedcommunicationwhereachievementsarecelebrated,problemsconfronted,solutionssoughtandpoliciesimplementedjointlyandtogether.(Ball,1994,p.44)

However,suchavisionofpartnership,whilstwelcomedinprinciple,istosomeextentstillanideal.Bothstaffandparentsmaybeuneasyabouttheempowermentofparentsandwhatthismeansinpractice(Stacey,1991).Staffmaybeambivalentbecauseoftheperceivedthreattotheirprofessionalstatus(Edwards&Knight,1994).Parentsmaybenervousabouttakingonincreasedresponsibilitiesforwhichtheyfeeluntrainedandunprepared.Becauseoflegislationandbudgetarycontrols,parentsmaynothavemuchactualpoweranditmaynotbeofthekindtheywant(Stacey,1991).Parentsmaytrustthestaffimplicitlytolaydownthecurriculumandorganisetheclassroom,butmaybecomequicklyconcernedaboutissuesrelatingtoindividualchildrenandstaff–parentcommunication,especiallyifthingsappeartobegoingwrong.ResearchBackground

Nonetheless,partnershipbetweenparentsandprovidersisnowcentraltotheGovernment’snotionofplanningpre-schoolprovision(SOEID,1997).Anyuncertaintyamongstprovidersandparentsaboutthenatureofthatpartnershipisallthemorejusti󰁊cationforresearchtoestablishwhattherespectivestakeholdersmightexpecttogainfromsucharelationship.Tothisend,consultationwithparentsisparamount,sothatprovisioncanbe‘responsivetotheneedsandpreferencesofusers’(SOEID,1997).Whilstlocalauthoritiesdoconsultonmanylocalissues,littleisknownaboutthebroaderpictureofexpectations,knowledgeandbeliefsandhowthesearere󰁋ectedbyparents’satisfactionwithprovision.

Thepurposeofthepresentresearch,sponsoredbytheScottishOf󰁊ceEducationandIndustryDepartment(SOEID),wastosurveyparentalopinioninordertogainawiderperspectiveonparents’perceptionsofthequalityandsuf󰁊ciencyofprovisionacrossthewholeofScotland.Morespeci󰁊cally,theresearchwasdesignedtoexplorefactorswhichin󰁋uenceparentalpreferenceforparticulartypesofpre-schoolprovisionandtoassesswhatparentsspeci󰁊callywanttheirchildrentogainfrompre-schoolprovision.Itwasalsodesignedtotapparents’knowledgeofandsatisfactionwithdifferenttypesofprovision.

Whilstseveralnationalorlarge-scalesurveysofparents’viewshavebeenconductedinrecentyears,theyhavenotaltogetherpaintedaconsistentpicture.Thereisnodisputingthehigh(increasinglyhigh)levelsofattendanceofchildreninsomeformofpre-schoolprovision(e.g.94%attendancereportedbyStratfordetal.,1997)andthatparentsareatleastreasonablyhappywiththeirchildcarearrangements(e.g.Longetal.,1996).Thereisalsoageneralconsensusthatparentalvaluesandprioritiesarerelatedtochoiceoftypeofcare(Haysteadetal.,1980;Johansenetal.,1996).

However,onotherissuesthereiscon󰁋ictingevidence.Somesurveyshaveshownparentstobequiteknowledgeableonwhatdifferenttypesofprovisionhavetooffer(e.g.Haysteadetal.,1980;Johansenetal.,1966;Stratfordetal.,1997).Otherstudieshavesuggestedthatparentsareconfusedoverdifferencesbetweentypesofprovision(Kysel,1982)orreportthatthereislittleevidencethatparentscandifferentiatethetypeofchildcareservicesavailable(Longetal.,1996).Similarly,instudiesthathaveaddressedthereasonswhyparentssendtheirchildrentopre-school,socialopportunitytomixwithsimilaragedchildrenhasbeenreported

192H.Footetal.

asahighprioritybysomeresearchers(e.g.Haysteadetal.,1980)butasalowprioritybyothers(e.g.Longetal.,1996).SharpandDavis(1997),inastudymostcomparablewithoursbutundertakeninsixareasofEngland,examinedfactorsthatwereimportantinparents’choiceofprovision.Theyfoundthatthepre-schoolestablishment’sreputationandthechildrens’safetyandhappinessweremoreimportantthanpracticalissueslikeproximitytohome,openinghoursandcosts.However,thisresearchdidnottakeintoaccountfamilycircumstances(e.g.socio-economicorresidentialstatus),whetherpreferencesshiftovertimenorhowpreferencesmatchuptotypesofprovision.TheStudy

Previousresearchhasidenti󰁊edfactorssuchas‘values’,‘preferences’,‘knowledge’,beliefsand‘expectations’ascontributorstoparents’decisionmakingandchoiceaboutappropriatepre-schoolprovisionfortheirchildren.However,ithasnotexploredtheinterconnectionsbetweensuchvariablesnortheircausallinkagetoselectionofprovision.Toargue,forexample,thatparentsplacedtheirchildinanurseryclassbecausetheywantedaneducationalorientationfortheirchildassumesimplicitlythatparentsalreadybelievethattheirexpectationsforeducationalprogressionaremorelikelytobemetinanurseryratherthaninanyothertypeofprovision.But,ofcourse,evenwhenotheroptionsareequallyaccessible,parentsmayplacetheirchildinaparticularestablishment,ortypeofprovision,foranynumberofinitialreasonsandthenrationalisetheirdecisionsubsequently.Itislikelythatsatisfactionwithchildcarearrangementsquicklyleadparentstoexpressingwhattheyhavecometoperceiveasthegoodqualitiesofthatprovisionasifthosequalitiesweretheoriginalreasonsforplacingtheirchildthere.

Involving,asitdoes,parents’knowledge,beliefs,intentionsandactions,theprocessofparentalchoiceisaptlyembracedbythetheoryofplannedbehaviour,whichisageneralmodelforlinkingattitudeswithbehaviour(Ajzen&Madden,1986;Ajzen,19).Inattemptingtopredictbehaviourfrombeliefsandknowledge,themodeltakesaccountofsubjectivenorms,attitudestowardsbehaviour,perceivedbehaviouralcontrolandbehaviouralintentions.Trans-latingthisintothetermsofparentalchoiceaboutpre-schoolprovision,themodelenablesusmoreaccuratelytopredictchoiceifweknow:(i)whatvaluesparentshold(i.e.theirpreferencesfortheirchildren);(ii)whatknowledge,beliefsandexpectationstheyhaveaboutdifferentformsofprovision;(iii)whattheyperceiveothers’beliefstobeaboutsuitableprovision;(iv)whattheiractualattitudesare(i.e.thestrengthoftheirdesireto󰁊ndsuitableprovisionfortheirchild);and(v)theoptionstheyhave(i.e.thebeliefthattheycanexercisecontrolovertheirchoice).Perceivedcontrolmayberelativelylowinareaswhereavailableprovisionisextremelylimitedbuthighwherethereissubstantialchoice.Itisself-evidentthatifchoiceislimited,thenparentsarelesslikelytobeabletoplacetheirchildaccordingtotheirstrongestpreferences.

Takingaccountoffamilycircumstances,thepresentstudyseekstoexplorethelinkagesbetweenthesevariablesusingthetheoryofplannedbehaviourtoclarifyourunderstandingoftheprocesseswherebyparentsmakedecisionsaboutappropriatepre-schoolprovision.Thespeci󰁊cresearchobjectivesweretoidentifyandclarify:

(a)parents’preferencesforpre-schoolprovisionandhowthosepreferenceschangeoverthe

pre-schoolyears;

(b)parents’beliefsandknowledgeaboutdifferenttypesofprovisionandwhatcanbe

expectedofthem;

(c)sourcesfromwhichparentsobtaintheirknowledgeaboutpre-schoolprovision;

Parents’Preferences,KnowledgeandExpectations193

(d)theextenttowhichvaluesandpreferences,knowledgeandexpectationsareinter-related

indeterminingchoiceofprovisionandchangesinchoiceofprovision;

(e)parents’satisfactionwiththeirexperienceofpre-schoolprovisionandtherelationship

betweensatisfaction,preferencesandexpectations.Method

Thestudywasconductedovertwosuccessivestages,the󰁊rststageinvolvingthedistributionofasurveyquestionnairetoalarge-scalesampleofparentsandthesecondstageinvolvingdetailedinterviewswithasampleofparentswhosechildrenwerecurrentlyattendingpre-schoolprovision.Stage1:Survey

Respondents.ThesurveywasconductedwithparentsofPrimaryOnechildren(󰁊rstyearinprimaryschool).Theseparentswereselectedinpreferencetoparentsofchildrencurrentlyattendingpre-schoolforseveralreasons:(i)theywouldhaveawiderexperienceofprovisionbecausetheirchildrenwouldhavecompletedtheirparticipationinpre-school;(ii)theyshouldnaturallyre󰁋ecttheproportionsofparentswhosechildrenattendeddifferenttypesofprovision;and(iii)theyshouldfeellessinhibitedinexpressingtheirviewscandidly.

AsampleofprimaryschoolsacrossallregionsofScotlandwasderivedfromtheScottishOf󰁊cedatabase.Toensurerepresentativeness,schoolswereselectedinproportiontothepopulationsofchildrenwithineachEducationAuthority.Selectionwasalsodesignedtogiverepresentativecoverageofurbanandruralcommunitiesasdesignatedbythedatabaseandofbroadsocio-economicstatusasindexedbytheprovisionoffreeschoolmeals.PrimaryOneclassesweretargetedfromatotalof126schoolsacross32localauthorities,withwhosepermissionquestionnairespluspre-paidenvelopesweredistributedtoallPrimaryOnechildrenwitharequesttotakethemhomeforcompletionbyparents.

Atotalof3315questionnairesweredistributedintwobatches,thesecondbatchtargetedespeciallyatschoolsinthoseareaswhichwereunder-representedintheresponsestothe󰁊rstcirculation.Inall,911questionnaireswerereturned,representinga27.5%responserate,varyingfrom17to52%acrossthelocalauthoritiessampled.Givena12pagequestionnairewith34questions,manyofwhichhadmultipleparts,thisrelativelylowresponseratewasfullyanticipatedandjusti󰁊edthelargeinitialcirculation.Closechecksonthesampleofrespondentsthroughthequestionnairesreturned,whichwerecodedbyschool,showedthatrespondentswererepresentativeoftheoriginalsampleselected.Therewerenodifferencesinresponseratesasafunctionofresidentialstatus(i.e.urban,intermediateorrural),baseduponsixcategoriesofpopulationdensitiesusedbytheScottishOf󰁊cedatabase.Therewasasmall󰁋uctuationasafunctionofsocio-economicstatus(SES):thoseschoolswith0–7%freeschoolmealscomprising34%ofthereturnedquestionnairesandthoseschoolswithover33%freeschoolmealscomprising23%ofthereturnand,therefore,slightlyunder-represented.

Characteristicsoftherespondentswerealsoderivedfromquestionnaireresponses:91%ofrespondentsweremothers;54%ofthequestionnaireswerecompletedbytheparentofaboy;in86%ofcasesrespondentsweremarriedorlivingwithapartner;in99%ofcasestheywerewhite(UK,Irishorother),whichprecludedananalysisofdataforethnicorigin.The1991censusrevealedanethnicminoritypopulationof62,600acrossScotland,whichisonly1.3%ofthetotalpopulation.Thesurvey󰁊gureofslightlyover1%,therefore,doesnotunder-rep-resentthisgroup.

194H.Footetal.

TABLE1.Typesofpre-schoolprovisionattended(per-centagesbasedonn882)

AllattendancesLAnurseryPlaygroupPrivatenurseryOther79227Onetypeonly271561Respondents’employmentstatuswasalsoanalysedusingfourcategories:full-time(21%);part-timeover16hoursperweek(27%);part-timeunder16hoursperweek(12%);unemployed(35%)(missingdata5%).Respondents’partnerswereverylikelytobeinfull-timeemployment(72%).Althoughthese󰁊guresrepresentrespondents’andtheirpartners’employmentsituationatthetimeofcompletingthequestionnaire,theyverycloselyre󰁋ectedthesituationthroughoutthewholepre-schoolperiod(i.e.childrenaged0–5)forwhichdatawerecollectedseparately.

Forconvenience,pre-schoolprovisionwasgroupedintofourtypes:(a)LocalAuthority(LA)nurseries:schoolsorclasses,betweenwhichparentsdidnotappear

tomakeadistinction.(b)Playgroups.

(c)Private(day)nurseries.

(d)Othertypesofprovision,includingdaycentres,LAdaynurseriesandfamilycentres.Table1showsthepercentagesofparentsinthesamplewhosechildrenattendedeachofthesetypes,theleft-handcolumnshowingthepercentageattendingthetypeatsomestageduringtheirpre-schoolcareerandtheright-handcolumnthepercentageattendingthattypetotheexclusionofallothers(theleft-handcolumnincludestheright-handcolumndata).Thehighpercentagesintheleft-handcolumnforLAnurseriesandplaygroupsindicatesthatmanyparents(infact48%)senttheirchildrentobothtypesofprovision.Inmostofthesecaseschildren’sattendanceattwoormoretypesofprovisionwassequential,but17%ofrespondentswhosechildrenhadattendedmorethanonetypeindicatedthattheirattendancehadbeenconcurrent,forexample,attendingplaygroupinthemorningandnurseryintheafternoon.Becausesuchalowproportionofparentssenttheirchildrento‘other’typesofprovision,thiscategorywasdroppedfromtheanalysis.

Questionnaire.Onthebasisofextensivepiloting,thequestionnaireconsistedof34items.Avarietyofformatswasusedtooffsetresponsebiasesandprovideinterestforrespondents:multiplechoice,responseboxestotickandopen-endedquestions.Thequestionnairewasstructuredintofourmainsections:

1.‘YourChildandFamily’:demographicinformationabouttheparent(s)andchild.

2.‘YourExperience’:typesofprovisionattendedbythechild,durationofattendanceandparentalvisitstopre-schools.

3.‘ContactwithPre-schoolProvision’:informationaboutparents’choiceofprovisionaswellastheiractiveinvolvementinactivitiesassociatedwiththeprovision.

4.‘BeliefsandExpectations’:parents’knowledgeandbeliefsaboutdifferenttypesofprovisionandtheirperceptionsofthemainbene󰁊tsanddrawbacks.

Parents’Preferences,KnowledgeandExpectations195

Stage2:Interviews

Sample.Theinterviewsinvolvedparentswhosechildrenwerecurrentlyattendingpre-schoolprovision.Thepurposewastoprobeingreaterdepthsomeoftheissuesarisingfromthequestionnaire,includingthoserelatingtochangesovertime.

Parentswereselectedfrompre-schoolestablishmentsacrossfourlocalauthorityregionswithina20mileradiusofGlasgow,tocoverbothrelativelyaf󰁋uentanddeprivedareas,inkeepingwiththesurveysampleofPrimaryOneparents.From75establishmentscontacted,16werevisited:nineLAnurseries,󰁊veplaygroupsandtwoprivatenurseries.Thesewereestablishmentswithvariablelevelsofparentalinvolvement.Intotal,91parentswererecruitedduringthevisitsandinterviewedlaterbytelephone.

Interviewschedules.Althoughparents’interviewsweredesignedtoexpandonareascoveredbythesurvey,theyalsoexploredotherissues.Questionsrangedacrossthechildren’sattendanceandthesettling-inprocess,theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofpre-schooleducation,parents’preferencesfordifferenttypesofprovisionatdifferentages,theextenttowhichprovisionwasperceivedasmeetingparents’andchildren’sneedsandgeneralissuesconcerningthedesirabilityofparentalinvolvementandtheadequacyofexistingprovision.Parentalparticipationinthedeliveryofpre-schoolprovisionwasanotherthemeoftheresearch,butthesedataarereportedelsewhere,alongwithdatafrominterviewswithstaff(Howeetal.,1998).ResultsandDiscussion

Resultsaredrawnfromboththesurveyandtheinterviews.Parents’PreferencesfortheirChildren

Parents’desiretoplacetheirchildinsomeformofpre-schoolprovisionwasoverwhelming:98%ofrespondentsreportedthattheirchildrenhadattendedsometypeofprovisioninthepre-schoolyears.Noattemptwasmadetoexcludeparentswhosechildrenhadnotattended,buttheirverysmallnumbermadeseparateanalysisoftheirresponsesimpossible.

Parentalpreferenceswereassesseddirectlybyratingsof24separatefactorswhichmighthavebeenconsideredwhenchoosingprovisionintheyearpriortoformalschooling.Thesefactorswereselectedonthebasisofpilotworkandfromliteratureandsurveyswhichsuggestedtheirrelevancetoparents’choices.Theimportanceofeachfactorwasratedas‘essential’(1),‘veryimportant’(2),‘quiteimportant’(3)or‘notimportant’(4),similartotheratingcategoriesusedbySharp&Davis(1997).

ThemeanfactorratingsandtheirassociatedclusterstandarddeviationsareshowninTable2.Statisticalanalysisrevealed󰁊vedistinctclusterswhich,indescendingorderofimportance,are:careandsafety,education,setting,convenienceandparents’needs.Theseclusterswereallsigni󰁊cantlydifferentfromeachotheratp0.001onaseriesofFriedmantests.Thecoef󰁊cientsforthereliabilitieswereintherange0.69–0.80andarealsoshowninTable2.Careandsafetyemergedastheparamountconcernforparents,followedbyeducationalprogressionandthequalityofthepre-schoolsetting.Convenienceandattentiontotheneedsoftheparentswereleastimportant.Theverylowstandarddeviationforcareandsafety,inparticular,showshowuniversallythiswasratedas‘essential’or‘veryimportant’atworst.Thehigherstandarddeviationsassociatedwiththeotherclustersdemonstrategreatervariabilityinwhatparentswerelookingforinpre-schoolprovision.However,thisvariabilitywasnot

196H.Footetal.

TABLE2.Importanceoffactorswhenselectingpre-schoolprovision(scoringscale:1essential;4notimportant;

n816–873)

MeanratingCare/safetyHappinessofchildSafetyandsecurityQualityofcareAttitudeofstaffClustermeanSDcoef󰁊cientReputationofpre-schoolPreparationforschoolStaffquali󰁊cationsSettleinschoolEducationalstandardReadingandmathsClustermeanSDcoef󰁊cientNumberofchildrenIndividualattentionPlayandtoysavailableInformationandadviceClustermeanSDcoef󰁊cientTravellingdistanceCostConvenienthoursClustermeanSDcoef󰁊cientClassesforparentsSponsoredplacesProvisionforunder3sMulti-culturalapproachSpecialneedscateredforParentalinvolvementAnotherchildattendingClustermeanSDcoef󰁊cient1.21.21.31.31.230.380.791.51.51.61.61.62.51.690.520.801.91.81.71.91.770.600.722.32.82.42.520.830.693.43.43.32.82.92.63.23.020.720.79EducationSettingConvenienceParents’needsrelatedtoanyofthedemographicfactors,suchasfull-timeorpart-timework,ascribedSES,urbanorruralresidentialstatusorlivingsinglyorwithapartner.Theconclusionisthatparentalpreferencesandprioritiesarebroadlysimilaracrossallsectionsofthecommunity.Parents’KnowledgeandBeliefs

Inadditiontoestablishingwhatparentsvaluedfortheirchildrenintheimmediatepre-schoolyear,thesurveyalsoaddressedparents’beliefsandknowledgeaboutdifferentformsofpre-schoolprovision,asameansofgaugingwhethertheyfelttheirneedsweremorelikelytobemetinoneformofprovisionthananother.ComparingLAnurseries,playgroupsandprivatenurseries(othertypesofprovisionnotincludedhere),respondentswereaskedtoindicatetheirbeliefsabout󰁊veknowledgedomains:(i)thetypeofstaffemployed;(ii)costtotheparent;(iii)weeksopen;(iv)dailysessions;and(v)ageofchildrenaccepted.Table3summarisesthe

Parents’Preferences,KnowledgeandExpectations197

TABLE3.Knowledgeaboutdifferenttypesofpre-schoolprovision(percentagesofrespondentstickingeachbox,multipleresponsesallowed;ntotalnumberofrespondentswhotickedineach

row).TypeofstaffLocalauthoritynurseryPlaygroupPrivatenurseryCosttoparentsLocalauthoritynurseryPlaygroupPrivatenurseryWeeksopenLocalauthoritynurseryPlaygroupPrivatenurseryDailysessionsLocalauthoritynurseryPlaygroupPrivatenurseryAgeofchildrenacceptedLocalauthoritynurseryPlaygroupPrivatenurseryTeacher844Nofee3150Allyear68Allday144600–12977Nurserynurse752286Minimalfee53673Schoolyear969313Schoolday34991–241774Halfday669192–31059833–4727486Parents26778Fullfee7270.95Playleader159125Voucher371230n786759596n7752629n8007540n7927536354–5813782n805622768percentagesofparentscheckingeachresponsecategoryforeachknowledgedomainandforeachtypeofprovision.

Multipleresponsesacrosscategoriespreventedanyreliablestatisticalanalysisofthesedata,butitisclearfrominspectionofTable3thatparentsgenerallymadewell-informeddifferentiationsbetweenthethreedifferenttypesofprovision.Forexample,veryhighproportionsassociatedteachersandnurserynurseswithLAnurseriesandplayleadersandparentswithplaygroups.Similarly,respondentswereparticularlyawarethatLAnurseriesandplaygroupsfollowschoolyearopeningtimes,whereasprivatenurseriesarelikelytobeopenallyearround.

Weconclude,therefore,thatparentsareabletodifferentiatebetweenthemaintypesofpre-schoolprovisionandthattheirdifferentiationisbasedonareasonablyaccurateunder-standingofhowtheprovisionoperates,aconclusionwhichisconsistentwithBall’s(1994)analysisandthesurvey󰁊ndingsofHaysteadetal.(1980).

Furthersurveyquestionsweredirectedatassessingwhatparentssawasthemainaimsofpre-schoolprovisionandwhetherparentswerealsoawareofanydifferencesintheobjectivesofdifferenttypesofprovision.Ingeneralterms,parentsstressedpreparationforschoolasthesinglemostimportantaimofpre-school,mentionedby77%ofthosewhoresponded.Otheraimsmentionedwere:socialisation—theopportunitytomixwithotherchildren(29%);education(23%);exposuretoarangeofactivities(7%);independence(5%).Whenaskedspeci󰁊callytocomparenurseries(LAplusprivatecombined)andplaygroups,62%ofrespondentsthoughtthattheiraimsweredifferent.Ofthosewhocommentedonthediffer-

198H.Footetal.

TABLE4.Parentalpreferencesasafunctionoftypeofprovision:meanweighting(scoringscale:1essential;4notimportant;

n816–874)PreferenceCare/safetyEducationSettingConvenienceParents’needsLAnursery1.271.661.772.442.96Playgroup1.231.1.842.543.18Privatenursery1.151.732.582.282.09ence,72%de󰁊neditintermsofeducationasthefocusofnurseriesandplayasthefocusofplaygroups,asillustratedbyparents’observations:

Theplaygroupwasjustsupervisedplaying.Atnurseryhiseducationhadstarted,althoughhethoughtitwasjustplaying.

Nurseryclassesarefarmorestructuredandfollowlocalauthorityguidelinesandcurriculum.Playgroupstendtobemoreplay…andlessorganised.

Thisseparationintheparents’mindsbetweeneducationandplayisdistinctlyatvariancewithcurrentpolicywhichpromoteslearningthroughplay(e.g.ScottishOf󰁊ce,1997).Thusitisasourceofpossibletensionbetweentheaspirationsofparentsandthoseofeducators,asalsoobservedbyMooneyandMunton(1998).Nootherperceiveddifferencesbetweennurseriesandplaygroupsproducedthesamehighlevelofcontrast.Parents’PreferencesforDifferentTypesofProvision

Fromtheseanalysesemergesapictureofparentswith:(i)aclearsetofpreferencesforprovisionduringtheimmediatepre-schoolyear;(ii)afairlyaccurateknowledgebaseofhowdifferenttypesofprovisionoperate;and(iii)a󰁊rmnotionthatnurseriesfocusmoreoneducationandplaygroupsonplay.

Turningnowtoconsiderparents’actualchoiceandusageofparticulartypesofprovision,severalquestionsarise:

(a)Doparentsselectaparticulartypeofprovisioninordertorealisetheiraspirationsfortheir

child?

(b)Ischoiceofparticulartypesofprovisionalignedwithparents’individualpreferencesand

priorities?

(c)Dotheirpreferencesandprioritieschangeoverthepre-schoolyears?

Thesequestionsarecloselyinter-relatedandareimportantfortestingthetheoryofplannedbehaviourbyestablishingwhetherparents’preferencesandprioritiesactuallyshapetheirdecisionsaboutprovisionfortheirchildren.

Itisevidentthatmanyparentsselectnurseriesfortheirchildintheyearimmediatelyprecedingschool:71%ofthesurveysamplereportedusingLAnurseriesand9%reportedusingprivatenurseries.Thequestioniswhethertheirchoicewasdeterminedbytheirpreferences.Table4showsthatwhenthepreferenceclusters(depictedinTable2)arebrokendownbytypeofprovision,thenconsiderablevariationoccursinthemeanweightingofclustersasafunctionoftypeofprovision.

Ithasalreadybeenestablishedthatcareandsafetywerethepredominantconcern(seeTable2)anditisnosurprisegiventhelowstandarddeviation,thatallparents,regardlessofthetypeofprovisiontheyactuallyused,wereconsistentabouttheimportanceofthisfactor.However,

Parents’Preferences,KnowledgeandExpectations199

TABLE5.Useoftypesofprovisionbychildren’sage

(percentages)

AgeofattendanceTypeofprovisionPlaygroupPrivatenurseryLAnursery0–3221333–44513384–5121051n795634867itisveryinterestingthatusersofnurseries,particularlyLAnurseries,weightededucationmoreheavilythanusersofplaygroups(p0.001).Itisalsoofinterestthatusersofprivatenurseriesplacedmoreemphasisonconvenience(p0.001)andonmeetingparents’needs(p0.05)thanusersofothertypesofprovision,buttheyplacedlessemphasisonsetting(p0.05).Takentogether,theseresultssuggestthatpreferencesandprioritiesarecloselyrelatedtopatternsofusage.Parentswhoplaceahighvalueoneducationaremorelikelytohavetheirchildreninnurseryprovisionofsomekindthanthosewhodonotvalueitsohighly.Parentsforwhomconvenienceandownneedsareimportantaremorelikelytohavetheirchildreninaprivatenurserythaninanyotherkindofprovision,especiallywhenbothparentsareinfull-timeemployment(p0.01).

Oneexceptiontothecloseassociationbetweenpreferenceandusagecomesfromthedataonresidentialstatus.LAnurserieswererarelyusedinruralareas:11%usage,incomparisonwith47%inurbanareasand43%inintermediateareas.Yetithasalreadybeennotedthatresidentialstatusmadenodifferencetotheweightingsassignedtothe󰁊vepreferenceclusters:ruralparentsvaluededucationasmuchasparentsinurbanorintermediateareas.Theirlowerusageofnurseriesappearstobeduetoapaucityofnurseryprovisioninruralareas.Implicitinthis,ofcourse,isthesuggestionthatpreferencesweredrivingdecisions,beingthwartedinruralareasbylackofchoiceor,intermsofthetheoryofplannedbehaviour,bylimited‘perceivedbehaviouralcontrol’.These󰁊ndingsforresidentialstatusarehardtoreconcilewiththeconverseviewthat,farfromdictatingchoice,parentalpreferencesmayberationalisationsoftheprovisionthathasbeenselected.

Thusamodelisemergingofparentshavingasetofpreferences,havingbeliefsabouthowthosepreferencescanbestbemetandthenchoosingwithinavailableoptions.Moreover,thismodelofactiveselectioninaccordancewithpreferencesisgivenfurthersupportbysurveyandinterviewdatarelatingtochangesinpreferencesovertime.Wehavealreadymentionedthat48%ofsurveyrespondentsreportedusingacombinationofplaygroupsandnurseriesacrossthepre-schoolyears.Table5showsthepatternofthisshiftwithLAnurseryattendanceincreasingsystematicallyfrom0to5andplaygroupattendance,mostprevalentatages3–4,droppingatages4–5.Attendanceatprivatenurseryremainedmoderatelyconstantacrossallpre-schoolages.TheshiftisthereforefromplaygrouptoLAnurseryasthechildbecomesolder.Thispatterniscon󰁊rmedbythehighproportionofrespondents(83%),usingacombinationofplaygroupandnursery,whoreportedsendingtheirchildrentoplaygroupbeforesendingthemtonursery,incomparisonwiththe17%whosentthemtoplaygroupandnurseryatthesameage.

Sincechildrenarenotejectedfromplaygroupswhentheyreachtheageof4,thesedatastronglysuggestthatmovementfromonetypeofprovisiontoanotheristheoutcomeofaprocessofactiveselection.Whenaskedtheirreasonsformovingtheirchildfromonetypeofprovisiontoanotherasthechildgrewolder,69%ofparentscitedeither‘preparationfor

200H.Footetal.

school’or‘naturalprogression’,oftenquali󰁊edwithaneducationalbias,asillustratedbythefollowingcomments:

Itwasanaturalprogressionfrommotherandtoddlerstoplaygroup,thenontoamorestructuredsurroundinginthenursery.

Pre-nurseryplaygroupwasattendedfor6monthsbeforenursery,butIfeltmychildwasolderandthecurriculumofnurserywasmoresuitedtohim.

Theideathatchoicewasdrivenbypreferencesindecisionstomovethechildfromonetypeofprovisiontoanotherisfurtherreinforcedbytheinterviewswithparents.Whenaskedwhytheyweresendingtheirchildtothecurrenttypeofprovision,50%ofnurseryparentsreported‘preparationforschool’andonly14%attributedittotheirchild’sage.Amongstplaygroupparents,incontrast,only20%mentionedpreparationforschooland20%mentionedthechild’sage.Thiswasagainstabackgroundinwhich81%oftheinterviewsamplereportedthattherewerealternativetypesofprovisionaccessibletothem,suggestingthat,inmostcases,agenuinechoiceexisted.

Despiteourthesisthatparentsmakeactivedecisionsbaseduponknowledgeandbeliefsanduponpreferenceswhichchangeaschildrengrowolder,parentsdonotengageextensivelyinshoppingaround.Thesurveyquestionedparentsaboutthenumberofpre-schoolestablish-mentstheyhadvisitedbeforedecidingwheretoplacetheirchild.Asmanyas45%ofrespondentsreportedhavingmadenovisitswhatsoever(incontrasttoonly8%ofparentsinEngland,asreportedbySharp&Davis,1997).Oftheremainder19,20and14%visitedone,twoandthreeormoreestablishments,respectively(2%,noresponse).Fromquestioningaboutthesourcesofinformationutilised,itwasclearthatsocialcontacts,mainlyfamilyandfriends,werehugelymorein󰁋uential(52%)inguidingdecisionsthananyothersinglesource.Professionalsources(e.g.healthvisitors,socialworkersanddoctors)accountedforafurther22%andtheremainingsourcesofinformationusedwerelea󰁋ets,postersanddirectories.Parentscometodecisionsonthebasisofinformationgleanedthroughtheirinformalsocialnetworksmuchmorethanthroughanyprintedliterature.Relianceonothers’knowledgeandbeliefsiswhollyconsistentwiththetheoryofplannedbehaviour,whichstressestheimportanceofsocialnormsinguidingaction.Parents’Satisfaction

Parents’evaluationsoftheirchildren’spre-schoolprovisionweretappeddirectlyandin-directly.Directquestioningconcerningtheperceivedbene󰁊tsofpre-schoolprovisionrevealedanoverwhelminglyhighlevelofsatisfaction,coupledwithaunanimousviewthatchildrenenjoyedbeingatpre-school.Throughthesurveyparents’satisfactionwasevaluatedprimarilybytheirreactionstothewaystaffdealtwithissuesandbytheirsuggestionsforimprovements.Table6listssevenkeyfunctionsofstaffinrelationtoparents,alongwithmeanratings,ona1(highlysatis󰁊ed)to4(dissatis󰁊ed)scale.Highratingsofallsevenfunctionsareimmediatelyevident,asisthesmallrangeofscores(1.43–1.65),andtherearenosigni󰁊cantdifferencesbetweenfunctions.Follow-upKruskall–Wallisteststocompareratingsasafunctionoftypeofprovisionrevealedonlyonesigni󰁊cantdifference:playgroupstaffwereratedaslesswillingthanotherstafftodealwithparents’questionsandconcerns(p0.01).Nonetheless,withinthepoolofplaygroupratingsthisfunctionstillobtainedthesecondhighestproportionof‘highlysatis󰁊ed’respondents.

Furthersurveyquestionsinvitedparentstoexpresstheirsatisfactionwiththefeedbackreceivedontheirchild’sphysicalandemotionalneeds(%satis󰁊ed)andontheirchild’sactivitiesanddevelopment(91%satis󰁊ed).Inexplainingthereasonsforsatisfactionrespon-

Parents’Preferences,KnowledgeandExpectations201

TABLE6.Satisfactionwithstaffbehaviour:meanweighting(scoringscale:1highlysatis󰁊ed;

4dissatis󰁊ed;n846–877)BehaviourStaffdiscussconcernsContactwithstaffStaffattitudestoparentsStaffdealingwithcomplaintsFeedbackonchildMakingspecialarrangementsParents’viewsconsideredMeanrating1.431.461.501.571.591.631.65dentsgaveopen-endedanswerswhichemphasisedthevaluetheyattachedtoface-to-facecommunicationwithstaff.Ofthe10%onlyofrespondentswhoregistereddissatisfaction,thiswasleveledatlackofstaffinterestandinsuf󰁊cientcontact.Staffareclearlycentraltoparents’thinkingabouttheirevaluationofpre-schoolprovisionanditisnotsurprisingthattheirfeelingsofsatisfactionrevolvedaroundtheircontactandcommunicationwithstaff.

Satisfactionwithpre-schoolprovisionwasalsoevaluatedmoreindirectlythroughtheperceivedbene󰁊tswhichparentsattributedtoit.Thesurveyrevealed‘socialinteraction’ortheopportunitytomixasbyfarthemostfrequentlycitedbene󰁊t,mentionedby74%ofrespondents,followedby‘independence’(22%)and‘routine/discipline’(19%).Theseexpres-sionsofsocialadjustmentareillustratedbyparents’comments,suchas:

Ithelpedwithsocialisingwithotherchildrenofthesameage,i.e.communicatingandsharing.Therewasalsolearninghowtobepartofagroup….

Themainthingwasthedevelopmentoffriendshipswhichhelpedmakeprimaryschoollessstrange….

Shelearnedtheconceptofgroupactivities:gradedindependencefromone-to-oneatmotherandtoddler,one-to-tenatnurseryandone-to-thirtyatschool.

Socialinteraction(35%)andlearningaroutineordiscipline(23%)alsofeaturedasthemostwidelyreportedbene󰁊tsofpre-schooleducationforhelpingchildrensettleintoprimaryschool.Educationalpreparationwasreportedlessfrequently(11%)atthepointoftransitiontoprimaryschool,probablybecauseparents’thoughtsarefocusedupontheirchildren’sgeneralwell-beingandadjustmenttonewclassmates,newteachersandanewenvironment.Nonetheless,sincewhatparents󰁊ndsatisfactoryaboutpre-schoolprovisionatthetransitiontoprimaryschooldoesnotalignperfectlywiththeirlongertermpreferences(i.e.educationalpreparation),itisinterestingtoexploretherelationshipbetweenpreferencesandsatisfactionmorebroadly.Thiswasdonebytakingthemeanscoresobtainedbysurveyrespondentsonthe󰁊vepreferenceclusters(care/safety,education,setting,convenienceandparents’needs)andcorrelatingthesewithmean‘satisfaction’scoresderivedbypoolingratingsofstaffbehaviour.CorrelationsbetweenpreferencesandsatisfactionamongstparentsfromLAnurseries,privatenurseriesandplaygroupsrangedfrom0.04to0.22,anumberofwhichweresigni󰁊cant.Satisfactionwassigni󰁊cantlyhigher(i)forthoserespondentsusingonlyplaygroupswhoplacedmoreemphasisuponcare/safety(r0.20,p0.01),(ii)forthoserespondentsusingonlyLAnurserieswhoplacedmoreemphasisuponeducation(r0.20,p0.01)and(iii)forthoserespondentsusingonlyprivatenurserieswhoplacedmoreemphasisuponparents’needs(r0.22,p0.01).Theseresultsareentirelyinaccordancewiththeresultsforparentalpreferencesineachtypeofprovision:thevaluewhichparentsattachtocare/safety,educationandparents’needsaremostsalientintheinitialselectionofplaygroups,LAnurseriesand

202H.Footetal.

privatenurseries,respectively.Theconclusiontobedrawnisthatthemorethatplaygroupsandnurseriesmatchupwithparents’preferences,themoresatis󰁊edthoseparentsare.GeneralDiscussionandConclusion

Theresultsofthesurveyandinterviewswithparentsprovideconsiderablesupportforthetheoryofplannedbehaviouranditsappropriatenessforpredictingparentalchoiceofpre-schoolprovision.Parents’preferences,knowledge,beliefsandexpectationscontributecollec-tivelytodeterminechoiceofprovision,reinforcedbysatisfactionwhenexpectationsaremet.Thestrengthofthetheoryisthatitprovidesaclearandsystematicpathwayamongstthevariablesthatlinktheoriginalattitudewithaction,ratherthanalooselyconnectedarrayoffactorsorconsiderations,outofwhichadecisionemerges.

Toexpandthisanalysiswestartwiththeinitialdesire(attitude)ofparentstoplacetheirchildreninsuitableprovision;fromthesurvey,thisamountedto98%.Theparentsholdoracquirecertainbeliefsaboutprovision,bothintermsofthedesirabilityofusingprovision(over90%sawthebene󰁊tstotheirchildren)andmorespeci󰁊callyintermsoftheirpreferencesforonekindofprovisionoveranother.Thesebeliefsderivefromdifferentsources:(a)Behaviouralbeliefs.Theseincludethesetofvaluesorpreferenceswhichwereprioritised

ascareandsafety,education,setting,convenienceandmeetingparents’needs.Thesepreferenceswerefoundtoberelativelyuniformacrossallparentsandwereindependentoffactorslikesocio-economicandresidentialstatus.Preferencesshiftasthechildprogresses:whilstcareandsafetyisanever-presenthighprioritythroughoutthepre-schoolyears,parents’concernabouteducationalprogressionincreasesasthechildapproachesprimaryschool.Behaviouralbeliefsalsoincludewhatparentsknowaboutdifferenttypesofprovision:forplaygroups,LAandprivatenurseriestheyhaveamoderatelyaccurateunderstandingofwhatcanbeexpectedincost,timesofavailability,staffemployedandageofchildrenadmitted.

(b)Normativebeliefs.Whateverbeliefsorknowledgeparentsmayhaveacquired,theyneed

socialsupporttoreinforcethosebeliefsandinclinethemtowardsappropriateaction.Itisperhapsnotsurprisingthenthattheirsocialnetworks,throughfamilyandfriendsand,lessmarkedly,throughprofessionalsourcessuchashealthvisitorsanddoctors,aresoin󰁋uentialinguidingtheirdecisionmaking.Muchoftheirbeliefsabouttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofspeci󰁊ctypesofprovisionandaboutspeci󰁊cpre-schoolestablish-mentsundoubtedlycomefromthissource,possiblybecauseoftheiruncertaintyorunawarenessaboutothersourcesofinformation.

(c)Beliefsaboutopportunitiesandresources.Actionisofcourseconstrainedbylimitations

ofchoicewhichareoutsideparents’control.Theremayberelativelyfewplacesavailableofthetypepreferredbyparentsinthecommunityinwhichtheyliveandattheagetheirchildrenhavereached.Ourdataforruralareasrevealedapaucityofpre-schoolplacesinLAnurseriesandademandthatisnotadequatelybeingmet.Weknowthatparentslivinginruralareashavejustthesamepreferencesfortheirchildrenasparentslivinginmoreurbanareas.Notwithstandingthepossibilitythatsomeparentswillnothavetheirexpectationsmetbyavailableprovision,thegeneraloutcomeoftheresearchisthatmostparentsareableto󰁊ndaccessibleprovisionwhichmatchestheirpreferencesandexpectationsandwhich,withinthetheoryofplannedbehaviour,leadsthemtoformulateclearandstablebehaviouralintentionsaboutplacingtheirchild,whichtheyfollowthroughinaction.Subjectivenormsplayan

Parents’Preferences,KnowledgeandExpectations203

importantrolethereafter,becausetotheextentthatmostparentsaresatis󰁊edwiththetypeofprovisionselected,theirsatisfactionfeedsbackintothecommunitytobecomepartoftheculturewhichservestoreinforcethenextgenerationofparentswhentheycometoselectaparticulartypeofprovision.Giventhelevelofknowledgeparentshaveacquired,itisinonesenseatributetothesenetworksandinformalsourcesofinformationthattheyworksowellinpassingontoparentsarealisticideaofwhattoexpect.

Fromapracticalperspective,ifparentsarereluctanttovisitestablishmentsforthemselves,andiftheyprefertogleantheinformationtheyneedfromfamilyandfriends,thenanystepsthatcanbetakentoimproveknowledgeaboutlocalpre-schoolfacilitiesshouldbeencouraged.Certainly,themorecontactparentshavewiththeirpre-schoolunitandthemoreinteresttheytakeintheirchild’sactivitiesinsideandoutsidepre-school,themorelikelyitisthataccurateinformationwillcirculatewidelywithinthecommunity.Forpolicypurposesthisisanargumentforincreasedparticipationonthepartofparentswhoseinvolvementcanonlystrengthentheaccuracyoftheinformationthatisdisseminatedtoothers.Theissueofparentsparticipatingwithstaffasfellowprovidersofearlyyearsservicesiscrucialtoprovidinghighqualityprovisionandisfollowedupelsewhere(Howeetal.,1998).

Advocacyforparentalinvolvementbringsusfullcircletotheissueofpartnershipbetweenstakeholdersandtheneedforserviceproviderstokeepinclosecontactwithparents’needsandpreferences.Ourresearchhasestablishedthatwhilethereiscommonagreementaboutcareandsafetyasthemajorconcernforallparents,therearesubtlebutsigni󰁊cantdifferencesintheprioritywhichparentsattachtofactorslikeeducationandsetting,accordingtothestageofdevelopmentwhichchildrenhavereached.Moreover,parents’owncircumstancesmayin󰁋uencetheprioritytheygivetolowerorderfeatureslikeconvenienceandparents’needs.Totheextentthattheprimaryneedsareuniversallymetbymostkindsofavailableprovision,thenselectionwithinthatprovisionbecomesabalancebetweenparents’perceptionsoftheirownneedsandtheirperceptionoftheirchild’sneeds.

However,broaderpoliticalandeconomicfactors,suchasthestateofthelabourmarket,alsohaveadirectbearingonchoice,becauseofvariationsintheavailabilityofemploymentforparentsandconsequential󰁋uctuationsintheneedforfull-timeprovision.Suchconsiderationsalsoaffectpolicydevelopmentwithrespecttoparentalinvolvement,withacknowledgedshiftsinemphasisbetweenmarket-drivenconsumerism,ontheonehand,andpartnershipsamongparentsandproviders,ontheother(Woods,1988).

Diversityofchoiceinpre-schoolprovisionisadesirablepoliticalandeducationalambitionandoneembracedbyseveralrecentgovernments.However,policiesonchoicehavetendedtoassumethatallparentscanexercisetheirchoicesequally.AsDavid(1993)hasemphasisedacrosstheeducationalspectrum,theremaybeconsiderablelimitationsonchoiceamongstthoselivinginconstrainedcircumstanceseventhough,asthisresearchshows,theirprefer-encesandexpectationsarenodifferentfromthoseparentsbetterplacedtoexercisetheirchoice.

Acknowledgement

ThisresearchwassponsoredbytheScottishOf󰁊ceEducationandIndustryDepartment.TheviewsexpressedinthispaperarestrictlythoseoftheauthorsandnotnecessarilythoseoftheDepartment,thecontractorortheProjectCommittee.References

AJZEN,I.(19)Attitudestructureandbehaviour,in:A.R.PRATKANIS,S.J.BRECKLER&A.G.GREENWALD(Eds)

AttitudeStructureandFunction,pp.241–274(Hillsdale,NJ,Erlbaum).

204H.Footetal.

AJZEN,I.&MADDEN,T.J.(1986)Predictionofgoal-directedbehaviour:attitudes,intentionsandperceivedbehavioural

control,JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology,22,pp.453–474.

BALL,C.(1994)StartRight:theimportanceofearlylearning(London,RoyalSocietyfortheEncouragementofArts,

ManufacturesandCommerce).

BERGER,E.(1991)Parentalinvolvement:yesterdayandtoday,ElementarySchoolJournal,9,pp.202–218.

CLARK,M.M.(1988)ChildrenUnderFive:educationalreserchandevidence(NewYork,NY,GordonandBreach

SciencePublications).

DAVID,M.E.(1993)Parents,GenderandEducationReform(Cambridge,PolityPress).

DIMMOCK,C.A.J.,O’DONOGHUE,T.A.&ROBB,A.S.(1996)Parentalinvolvementinschooling,Compare,26,

pp.5–20.

EDWARDS,A.&KNIGHT,P.(1994)EffectiveEarlyYearsEducation(Buckingham,OpenUniversityPress).

ELFER,P.&WEDGE,D.(1996)De󰁊ning,measuringandsupportingquality,in:G.PUGH(Ed.)ContemporaryIssues

intheEarlyYears:workingcollaborativelyforchildren(London,NationalChildren’sBureauandPaulChapman).

HAYSTEAD,J.,HOWARATH,V.&STRACHAN,A.(1980)Pre-schoolEducationandCare(London,Hodder&

Stoughton).

HOWE,C.,FOOT,H.,CHEYNE,W.,TERRAS,M.&RATTRAY,C.(1996)ParentsandPre-schoolProvision:preferences,

involvementandgeneralsatisfaction(Edinburgh,ScottishOf󰁊ceEducationandIndustryDepartment).

JOHANSEN,A.S.,LIEBOWITZ,A.&WAITE,L.J.(1996)Theimportanceofchild-carecharacteristicstochoiceofcare,

JournalofMarriageandtheFamily,58,pp.759–772.

KYSEL,E.(1982)Pre-schoolProvisioninanAreaofLewisham,ILEAResearchandStatisticsReport,RS816/82

(London,ILEA).

LONG,P.,WILSON,P.,KUTNICK,P.&TELFORD,L.(1996)Choiceandchildcare:asurveyofparentalperceptionsand

views,EarlyChildDevelopmentandCare,119,pp.51–63.

MOONEY,A.&MUNTON,A.G.(1998)Qualityinearlychildhoodservice:parent,providerandpolicyperspectives,

ChildrenandSociety,12,pp.101–111.

NISBET,J.&WATT,J.(1994)EducationalDisadvantageinScotland:a1990’sperspective,pp.59–72(Edinburgh,

ScottishCouncilforCommunityEducation).

RUST,V.&BLAKEMORE,R.(1990)EducationalreforminEnglandandWales:acorporatistinterpretation,

ComparativeEducationalReview,34,pp.67–79.

SCOTTISHOFFICE(1997)CurriculumFrameworkforChildreninthePre-schoolYear(Edinburgh,ScottishOf󰁊ce).SHARP,C.&DAVIS,C.(1997)Parents’ViewsofPre-schoolProvision(Slough,NFER).

SOEID(1997)EducationinEarlyChildhood:aconsultationpaper(Edinburgh,ScottishOf󰁊ceEducationand

IndustryDepartment).

STACEY,M.(1991)ParentsandTeachersTogether:partnershipinprimaryandnurseryeducation(MiltonKeynes,

OpenUniversityPress).

STRATFORD,N.,FINCH,S.&PETHICK,J.(1997)SurveyofParentsofThree-andFour-year-oldChildrenandtheiruse

ofEarlyYearsService(London,DfEE).

WOODS,P.(1988)Astrategicviewofparentparticipation,JournalofEducationPolicy,3,pp.323–334.