语言学讲解和名词解释

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.

Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures 1. language

1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言

A tool for communication交流的工具

An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.

If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.

1.2 What is language?什么是语言

1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义

1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person‘s consistent way of speaking or writing

a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system

2. A webster‘s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word ―language‖: a. human speech 人类的言语

b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力

c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,

used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统

d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达

3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是

言语交流的一种方式.

Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is

social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.

1.2.2 definitions

一.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication?

A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).

A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than

randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)

Why do we say language is arbitrary?

Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning,

between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotation from shakepeare‘s play:‖ Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would

smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.

Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but

convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.

Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their

writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.

Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Human ----language is human-specific.

Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.

―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)

二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?

Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.

1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征

Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.

Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)

The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features. What is arbitrariness?任意性

a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the

fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)

It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.

E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese) Mansion (French) 房子(Chinese)

(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性

a. By ―arbitrary‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。

A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language

therefore is largely arbitrary.

b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang ‖ ‖crash‖ ‖roar ‖ ‖ rumble ‖ ‖cakle‖, which are motivated in a certain sense.‖

onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词

c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. ―type ‖ and ‖write ‖are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type -writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree. arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。 Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。 (2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性

According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。 Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of

arrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。 (3) Aribrtary and convention任意性和约定性

The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。

The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。

conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.

Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。

There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)

For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.

b. duality(二重性):--- one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two

levels of structures , such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指拥有两层结构的这种特性,底层结构是上层结构的组成成分,每层都有自身的组合规则.)

duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds

and that of meaning.

the higher level ----words which are meaningful

the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped

into words.

Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )

a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.

Linguists refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) . At the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments wich lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.

According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is improtant for the workings of language.

A samll number of senmantic words /units, and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.这些意义单位组成无数个句子。(note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).

Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.

This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with

The principle of economy

To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级性。

c. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.

creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (指语言的能产性,因为语言有二重性和递归性.)

productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‘s native language , including those that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。

e.g. an experiment of bee communication:

The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if

the location is really ‗new‘ .

In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the

top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.

No one has never said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an

African gibbon‖, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register.

Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is

also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (by N. Chomsky)

Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。

d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language,which means human language

enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.(指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体,时间和观点.)

Bee communication:

When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance

routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.

Displacement , as one of the design features of the human languag, refers to the fact that one can talk

about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real or unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空。

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that

means language has the feature of displacement.

Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for esxample, is crying to a woman, about

something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occuring, or soemthing that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can dicide it is

barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It counldn‘t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a samll share of ―displacement‖, but it‘s an unspeakable tiny share

e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission

You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.

The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.

This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular languag a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one lkie the dog‘s barking system. （人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的本能而获得的。）

If a human beging is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire langauge. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‘s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language. Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。 f. interchangeability 互换性

interchangeablity means that any human beging can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differatiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barkds, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are ―speaking‖ and which listening.

What featrues of human langauge have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?

Arbitrainess----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of. Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.

Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.

Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation.

Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communicaiton.

Why do linguists say langauge is human specific?

First of all, huan language has six ―design features‖ which animal communication sysmtens do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.

Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign language‖, and learned a little that made the teacehrs happy but did not make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching champanzees.

Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so. 1.4 Origin of language 语言的起源

1.5 functions of language 语言的功能

Jakobson difined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee,

context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。

Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:

Referential funtion-----to convey message and imformation所指功能：传达信息

Poetic funtion -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功能：完全就语言而语言

Emotive funtion ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情 Conative funtion ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人

Phatic funtion ----to establish communion with others 交感功能：与他人建议交流

Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义

They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。

Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有：

Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系

Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功能：反映了社会关系

textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系

Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, represnetational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。

Function(功能): the use of language to communicate,to think ,etc.Language functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.(用语言交流,思考等.语言功能包括信息功能,人际功能,施为功能,感情功能,交感性功能,娱乐性功能和元语言功能.)

language has at least seven funtions: patic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.

Accoriding to Wang Gang (1988), langauge has three main functions: a tool of communications,

a tool whereby people learn about the world; a tool by which people creat art. 1.5.1 Informative function信息功能 What is the informative function?

Langauge serves an “informatvie function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true or false. According to P. Grice‟s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.

Informative function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. 在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。

Halliday notes that “langauge serves for the expression of „content ‟”: that is, of the speaker‟s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“语言为表达„内容‟服务：这个„内容‟就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识的内部世界。“ It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language

suggests to us. 它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去做。

1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能 1.5.3 Performative function 施为功能

This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives. 1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能 1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话

phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类语言的功能之一,指语言的社会交互性.)

broadly speaking, phatic funcion refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.概况地说，交感性功能是指那些有助于说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，行业话，礼节性的交际，社会地域方言的转化等等。

The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts than for exchanging imformation or ideas. Greetings , farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all lserve this function. Much of the phatic langauge(eg, ―how are you?‖ ―fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don‘t say ―hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―hi ‖ , you ruin your friendship. 1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐性功能

What is the evocative function? 什么是娱乐性功能？

The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to creat certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listerner; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative funtions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issure but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s aslo the case with the other way round.

1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能

metalanguage(元语言): certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.用以讲述或描述另一语言等的语言或一套符号。 What is the direct function?

The ―direction function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this funtion. E.g. ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle‘s ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g, ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖

What is the interrogative function?什么是疑问功能？

When language is used to obtain information, it serves an ―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc. according to the ―indirect sppech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g. ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorial questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‘s /listerner‘s answer. What is the expressive function?

The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ . sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‘s

own attitudes.

1.6.What is linguistics

Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.

Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. 语言学是对语言进行科学地研究的学科。它所研究的并不是某种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言的共性。

A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.

observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theory

A linguist , though , does not have to know and use a large number of language, but to investigate

how each languag is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are consturcted and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.

Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.

Lingusitics investigates not any particular language, but language in general. Linguistic stduy is

scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the lingusist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hyphotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.

What makes linguistics a science?

Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic,

investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principle: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.

(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an

adequate explaination, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic ―stone‖ unturned.

(2) Consistency means there should be no countradiction between different parts of the total

statement.

(3) Economy means a liguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.

(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist shoud be

(or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitues part of the linguistics research.

1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics语言学的主要分支

Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.语言学至少包括五个分支：语音、形态、句法、语义、和语用。

General lingusitics 普通语言学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把语言作为一个整体来研究的学科被称为普通语言学，它是语言学研究中探索人类语言的普遍性质和规律的学科。

1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成，传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语

连接等等。

Phonetics----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.

1.7.2 phonology 音系学（音位学）-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes. 研究的是语音和音节的结构，分布和序列，它将音位视为起止点，来处理语言的语音系统。音位是语音的最小的语言学单位，它能够区分意义的不同。英语大概有45个音位。

Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication.

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.语音学是研究在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音，而音系学则是研究这些语音中能形成语言和意义的一个子集。

Phonetics foucuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.语音学是无序的语音，音系学则注重有序。

1.7.3 morphology 词法学----is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning----morphemes and word-formation processess.涉及词语的内部组织，它研究意义的最小单位---语素和成词过程。

Morphology------the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to from words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. How morphemes are combined to form words.

1.7.4 syntax 句法学----is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationship between words, word classes and other sentence elements.句法是形成和理解正确的英语句子的规则。句子形成或结构受制于句法规则，这些规则规定了词语顺序、句子组织、以及词之间，词的格之间，和其他句子成分之间的联系。

Syntax-----the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in language is govened by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, i.e., syntax. How morpehemes and words are combined to form sentences.

1.7.5 semantics 语义学----examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. Key concepts: senmantic component, denotation of words, sense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymy, sense relations between sentences such as entailment and presupposition.考察的是意义如何在语言中编码。它关心的不仅仅是字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和词之下的其他成分的意义，如语素和句子的意义。关键性概念：语义成分，词的所指，反义和同义等词语间的意义联系，诸如蕴涵和预设之类的句子间的意义联系。

Semantics-----the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as senmantics. The study of meaning (in abstraction)

1.7.6 pragmatics 语用学----is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmaitics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.在语境中研究意义。它是在特定的场景中处理特定的话语，尤其注意于不同社会场景影响语言诠释的方法。换句话说，语用学关心的是语言被用来交际的方法，而不是语言组成的方式。

Pragmatics regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social

conbentions. Some key concepts: reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles。语用学主要将言语行为看成是被各种社会常规所制约的一种社会行为。主要概念：所指、强制、效果和合作原则。

Pragmatics----the study of meaning is conducted , not in isolation, but in the context of use.研究语言与语言使用者和语言语境的关系。

1.8 macrolinguistics(宏观语言学): the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,the science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,computational linguistics etc. (心理学,社会学,人种学,法学和人工智能等等语言学有关联.宏观语言学的分支包括心理语言学,社会语言学,人类语言学,计算语言学等等.)

1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学-----investigates the interreation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example. There is the psycholinguistic study of grammar. The psycholinguistics constrains on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundation of language; and a big topic----the relationship between language and cognition.心理语言学考察语言和意识的相互关系，如话语的处理和产生，以及语言习得等。还有语法的心理语言学研究，即研究心理语言学对语法形式的。心理语言学还研究儿童语言的发展，如语言习得理论、语言的生物学基础和认知的关系等。

Psycholinguistics----it relates the study of language to psychology . the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind.研究语言的产生和理解。语言习得等问题。

1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学-----is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.研究语言多样性的特征、它们的功能特征和说话者的特征以及者三者在言语社团中持续的交互作用和变化。

Sociolinguistics-----the study of language with reference to society.研究语言与社会文化的产生。 1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学

1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算语言学-----is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as ―natural language‖, to distinguish it from computer languages.) 一跨学科的领域，它以计算机处理和产生人类语言（即自然语言，与计算机语言相区别）这一应用为中心。

Applied linguistics 应用语言学-----the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. 研究语言学习和语言教学等问题。 1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics

1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式‖和 ―规定式‖

prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,i.e.laying down rules for language use.(规定事情应该是怎样的.)

descriptive(描写式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.(描述事情是怎样的.)

Descriptive vs. prescriptive ―描写式‖和 ―规定式‖

They represent two different types of linguistic study.

If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

What makes traditional grammar different from moden linguistics?

Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. de Saussure‟ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.

The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:

Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is

interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.

Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.

Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind. 1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic ―共时‖和 ―历时‖

synchronic(共时的): a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.(共时的描写以一个固定的时间(通常,但非必须是现在)为它的观察角度,大多数的语法书属于此类型.)

.diachronic(历时的):study of a language is carried through the course of its history.(在语言的历史过程中研究语言.)

The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

e.g (1) an essay entitled “On the sue of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alernation.

(2) a study of the features of the English used in Shakepeare‟s time and would be a synchronic study, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study.

1.9.3 langue & parole ―语言‖ 和 ―言语‖

langue(语言): the linguistic competence of the speaker.(说话者的语言能力.)

parole(言语): the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).(语言的实际现象或语料.)

The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century.

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.语言是一个语言社会的所有成员共同使用的抽象语言系统。言语是对于这些抽象语言系统的实际运用。

What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.

(1) Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，是因人而异的。

(2) Langue not actually spoken by an individual , parole always a naturally occruing event.

(3) Langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus nto suitable for systematic investigation.

What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great important, which casts great influence on later linguists.

1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用

competence(语言能力): a language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)

performance(语言应用): the actual use of language in concrete situations.(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)

The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‘s. Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.

Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

According to N. Chomsky, ―compentence‖ is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his

language理想的语言使用者的抽象语言知识and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance , in linguistic communication. 语言使用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际运用。

Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences

and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.

A speaker‘s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological

and social factors. So a spearker‘s performance does not always match or equal his supposed compentence.

Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other

words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.

How is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky‘s distinction

between competence and performance?

Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and

the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study.

How is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole differ to Chomsky‘s distinction

between competence and performance?

Chomsky‘s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to ,

F. de. Saussure‘s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual . Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistics point of view than N.Chomsky since the latter deals with his issures psychologically or psycholinguistically.索绪尔的理论与乔姆斯基的理论的不同之处在于索绪尔是从语言的社会学角度来谈论语言；而乔姆斯基是从语言的心理学角度来谈论语言的。

1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic

etic(非位的): a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike‘s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was often the case with phonetic vs.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.(术语来自于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分.他更容易面临‖非位‖而不是‖位学‖的倾向,也就是实践中弄出来过多的不重要的区别,严格的语言学中有关语言和音位的分析就是这样的例子.)

4. emic(位学的): a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike‘s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator‘s ingenuity or intuition alone.(言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的,是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的.)

what is speech and what is writing?

Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or wirting? Why ?

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary , not the written.

No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primary of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long bfore writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.

Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds individual

sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoke form of language, writing as written codes, give language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messanges can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowuff, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistics analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and tehre to fore.

Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistic study for the following reasons: (1)Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution

(2)A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. (3)Speech is the form in which imfants acquire their native language. What is linguistic potential ? what is actual linguistic behaviour?

These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M.A.K Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarlly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. ―his actual linguistic behaviour‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said linguistic potential.

In what way do language , competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?

Language, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventins; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‘s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisialbe but reliable abstract system. Competence means‖ knowing‖, abd linguistic potential set of possibilities for ―doing ‖ ro ― performing actions‖. They are similar in that they refer to the constant underlying the utterance, that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.

第三章

Chapter 3 Lexicon词汇

Teaching aims: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic

word-formation methods

Focal points: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods Teaching procedure

Lexicon：In its most general sense, lexicon is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, it

deals with the analysis and creation of words.

Word

3.1 What is word

Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.词是个表达单位，不管是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人对词有种普遍的直觉识别能力。

3.1.1 Three senses of “word”“词”的三种含义 a. a physical definable unit: 是自然的有界限单位

word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks. 词可

以看作是两个间隔或空白之间的音段成分或字母的组合群。

b. the common factor underlying a set of forms 是支配一组形式的共同因素。

Word is the common factor underlying a set of forms, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme. 词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。

lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.

lexeme(词位):A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖) Lexeme-----is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。

e. g. boy boys; check, checks , checking, checked; write, writes, wrote, writing, written; fat, fatter, fattest

boy, check, write, and fat are the lexemes. c. a grammatical unit 是一个语法单位。

e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou.

Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence. 3.1.2 Identification of words词的识别 1. stability 稳定性

Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, that is, the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierachy.But it is all right for us to rearrange the constituents in a sentence to a certain degree . 所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就其内部结构来说，跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但是句子成分却可以做一定程度的重新排列。

e.g. The chairman looked at the audience. 看观众 The audience loooked at the chairman. 观众看。 2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对的连续性

By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nor is allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word. 连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。 3. A minimum free form 最小的自由形式

It was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. H eadvocated treating sentence as ―the maximum free form‖ and word‖ the minimum free form‖, word being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance. 由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作―最大的自由形式‖，把词看作―最小的自由形式‖。词是能构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。 3.1.3 Classification of words 词的分类

a. Variable vs. invariable words 可变化词和不变词

Words can be classfied according to their variability. 根据可变性可以对词进行分类。

In variable words----- one could find ordered and regular series of gramartically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. Thus , each ordered series constitutes paradigm. 关于可变化词，人们可以找到一系列整齐而有规则的词形，它们在语法上是不同的；另一方

面，词的一部分相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。

Invariable words------refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 不变词指since,when, seldom, through, hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。 b. Grammatical words vs. lexical words 语法词和词汇词

In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into Grammatical words vs. lexical words.就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。

Grammatical words/ function words------those which express grammatical meanings, such as , conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. (表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.)

Lexical words/ content words--------those which have lexical meanings, that is , those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, re lexical words. (具有词汇意义指物质,动作和性质的是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词.)

As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones function words. 词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。

c. Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词

The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to distinction of ―colsed-class‖ words and ―open-class‖ words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。

Closed-class word(封闭词类):------ a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. .(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)

open-class word(开放类词):------- a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)

What are open classes? What are closed classes?

In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are “open-class words”, since we can regularly add new lexical entries to these classes. The other syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all. d. Word class 词类

Classify words either by analyzing the various grammatical, semantic, and phonological properites of the words in language, or by grouping them into classes on the basis of formal similarities in PART OF SPEECH in traditional grammar.要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。在传统语法中词类part of speech是封闭的。

Particles 、Auxiliaries、 Pro-form 、Determiners 助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词 3.2The formation of word 词的形成

3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology 语素和形态学

The smallest components are known as morphemes. But they themselves cannot further analyzed. 最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。

Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and

content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. (就表达和内容之间的关系看,语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义.) Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning ,the basic unit in the study of morphology. 词素是形态学研究的最基本的单位。

Morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit of language.词素是单词的最小的有意义的组成部分。 The word”boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and ” -es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don‟t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore, a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning.

Morphology---- is the immediate concern of a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal

structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。

What is morphology?什么是形态学？

Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by

which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology, and lexical / derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology studies the inflections and lexical / derivational morphology studies the word-fromation. 形态学是语法学的一个分支，研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。形态学有两个分支：曲折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。曲折形态学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；派生形态学研究单词的构成和词义的表达。

What does morphology study? The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their

formation.

The two fields ：

Inflectional morphology 曲折形态学: the study of inflections

Derivational morphology: 派生形态学the study of word-formation 3.2.2 Types of morphemes

morpheme free: free root

bound bound root root

affix inflectional derivational prefix

suffix

1. free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素和粘着语素

Morphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occuring alone.根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类。

free morpheme(自由语素):-------Those morphemes which may occur alone, that is , those which may constitue words by themselves, are free morphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成词的,叫做自由语素.) Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves

bound morpheme(粘着语素): -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(dogs中的-s, national 中的-al, disclose中的dis-不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素.)

Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with

other morphemes to form words

. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?

A “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as „bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”,

“-al” in “national” and so on. All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes). 2. root, affix and stem 词根，词缀和词干

（1）root(词根): the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. (词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根。

All words contain a root morpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素。

A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning ; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.词根，粘着语素的一种，往往被看作是一个单词的一个部分。它本身有清楚，确定的意义，却不能被单独使用，而只能与另外一个词根结合在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在一起才能形成一个单词。

（2）affix(词缀): the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)

Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。

Prefix前缀----prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of

the original word. dis-; un-; mis- para-; mini- ; 前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。 Exception: be-; en-; em-; Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs. For example: little----belittle; large---enlarge; rich---enrich; body---embody

Suffix后缀:-----suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the orginal word and in many cases change its part of speech. -ly; -ness; -tion; -ise; 后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的意义，并且大所数情况下改变词性。

Infix中缀: foot/feet; goose/geese ;–oo-; -ee- ;

some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to

divide them into two parts. tatawa ―a person who will laugh‖ tumatawa ―a person who is laughing‖ ngitad ―dark‖ ngumitad ―to be dark‖

In this language, the infix –um- is inserted after the first consonant of a noun or adjective. (fikas- ―strong‖ fumikas-- ―to be strong‖

（3）Stem(词干): any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(词干是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合.)

a stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.派生词缀可加在已存在的形式词上形成的一个新词，原来存在的形式词被称为词干。词干可以是粘着词根，自由词素和一个派生词。

What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?

A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme “nation” as its root when “ inter-”, “-al” and “-ism” are taken away.

A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as, and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends”, “friend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “friendships”, “friendships” is its stem, “friend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e. g., “mailman” , “girlfriend” ,ect. An “affix” is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(prefix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suffix). 3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix 曲折词缀和派生词缀

Inflection/inflexion(屈折变化):------ the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition

of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.(屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现,如数,人称,有定性,体和格,屈折词缀不会改变所附加词语的语法类.)

Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or

grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. E.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John‘s derivation(派生词):------the manifestion of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. Different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.(通过增加派生词素来表明词干与词缀关系的 构词法。跟复合词不同,派生词则能表明词根和词缀之间的关系.)

Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words.

There are three kinds according to position in the new words, : prefix, suffix and infix. 3.2.3 Inflection and word formation 屈折变化和词的形成 There are two fields Morphology concerns:形态学涉及两个领域：

(1) the study of Inflections(also called inflectional Morphology)研究屈折变化

(2) the study of word-formation (often referred to as lexical or derivational morphology)研究词的形成，

常指词汇形态学或派生形态学 1. Inflection 屈折变化

What is inflection/inflexion?

“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现，如数，人称，有定性，体和格，屈折词汇不会改变所附加词语的语法类。

2． word formation 词的形成

Word –formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the propcess of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type(compond) and the deriational type(derivation).词的形成，从严格意义上讲，指词形变化的过程，这些词形变化是标志

词项之间的关系的。这可以进一步分为复合类（复合词）和派生类（派生词）两种。

A. Compond 复合词

Compond, one the whole, refers to those words that consisit of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.整体上说，复合词指那些由一个以上的词汇语素构成的词，或者由两个的词连接起来构成新的形式。

In compounds, the two lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.复合词中，两个词汇语素可能是不同的词类。

compound(复合词): polymorphemic words(多语素词) which consist wholly of free morphemes,suc as paymaster,moonwalk,babysist,godfather,sunflower,classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.(组成成分都是自由语素的多语素词.) B．Derivation 派生词

Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.派生词能表明词根和词缀之间的关系。 3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology音系学和形态学的对立 1. morpheme and phoneme (p93-95)语素和音位

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound; a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar音位是语音中最小单位；语素是语法中的最小单位。

Morphonology形态音系学; morphophonemics 形态音位学

Asingle phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.单个的音位可以代表一个语素，但他们并不总是一致的。

2. Morphemic structure and phonological structure语素结构和音位结构

Morphemes may also be represented by phonological strucutres other than a single phoneme.语素也可以不用单个音位表示，而用音位结构表示。

The syllabi c( phonological) structure of a word and its morphemic (grammatical) structure do not necessarily correspond.一个词的音节（音位）结构和语素结构不一定是一致的。 3. allomorph语素变体

A morpheme is a linguistic abstraction; it is a concept. It needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. Those forms are called morphs. In morphemic transcription, morphemes in the abstract notion are put between braces like

Allomorph: A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. The variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs.

allomorph(语素变体): any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme. 3. Morphophonology or Morphophonemics 形态音系学，又叫形态音位学

Morphophonology (Morphonology) or Morphophonemics (Morphonemics) is a branch of linguistics refering to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and , correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. At any rate, it studies the interrelationships between phonology and morphology.形态音系学或形态音位学，是语言学的一个分支，指对影响语素形式的音位要素的分析和分类，以及对影响音位形式的语法要素的分析和分类。总之，它是研究音系学和形态学之间的相互关系。

a. Phonologically conditioned 音位的

The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.语素的形式可能会受到音位要素的。

.dissimilation(异化作用): the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.(指一个音段影响了另一个音段的清晰度,以致语音变得不太相似或不同.)

b. Morphologically conditioned 形态的

What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?

The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word “boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and “-es”, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don‟t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as “dog”, “cat”, etc. The variants of the plurality “-s” make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.

What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? Lexicon? Word? Lexeme? Vocabulary?

“Lexicon”, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations. “Word” is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. This definition is perhaps a little vague as there are different criteria with regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard, even impossible, to define “word” linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the definition of “word”, none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1) a physically definable unit, e.g. [it iz „w ] (phonological), “It is wonder” (orthographic); (2) the common factor underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of “checks”, “checked”, “checking ”, etc.); (3) a grammatical unit (look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence). According to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form, according to Bloomfield). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great change of orthographic features); (2) relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words; (2) grammatical and lexical words (e. g. to, in, etc., and table, chair, etc. By “lexical words” we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words. In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term “word”, the term “lexeme” is postulated as the abstract unit which refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts. For example, “write” is the lexeme of the following words: “write”, “write”, “wrote”, “writing”, and “written.” “Vocabulary” usually refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So we encourage our students to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary” is also used to mean word list or glossary.

What is collocation?

“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items. For example, we can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur with “book” which is supposed to have faults, but no one can “read” a “mistake” because with regard to co-occurrence these two words are not collocates. 3.3 Lexical change词汇变化

3.3.1 Lexical change proper特有的词汇变化

Major ways to create new words:

Compounding: a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.

blackboard godfather baby-sit cross-cultural

Derivation: the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or

words.

e.g. finalize widen hospitalize clockwise (顺时针)

Blending混成法 : a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.

blending(混成法): a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by

joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(混成法是一种相对复杂的混合形式,由两个单词混合而成,一般是一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来,或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来.)

transistor(transfer+resister)晶体管; smog(smoke+fog)烟雾; positron(positive+electron)正电子; boatel(boat+hotel)水上旅馆； brunch(breakfast+lunch)早午餐； smaze(smog+haze); telecast(television+ broadcast)电视广播 ; motel (motor +hotel)；

cremains(cremated+remains)骨灰； telex(teleprinter+exchange)电报，电传打字机； modem(modulator+demodulator)调制解调器； anacom(analog+computer)分析计算机； digicom(digital+computer)数码计算机； insulac(insulating++lacquer)绝缘材料

Fusion溶合法，混成法的一种,eg. Stample(trample+stamp on); crackdown(crackup+breakdown)

Abbreviation缩写词: a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. e.g. TV(television) Dr(doctor) hr(hour) ft(foot or feet)

clipping截断法: a kind of abbreviation of longer words or phrases。A new word is created by A. Cutting the final part (or with a slight variation)截掉后面的部分（或有些小的变化）

memorandum---memo advertisement---ad; bicycle----bike; professor—prof fantic--fan B. Cutting the initial part删去开头的部分

telephone---phone; omnibus—bus; helicopter—copter; aeroplane---plane

C. Cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly删去开头和结尾相应的部分

e.g. electronic mail---e-mail high fidelity---hi-fi; influenza—flu; refrigerator---fridge Acronym缩略语: a word created by combining the initial letters of a number of words.

acronym(缩略词): is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily

modified headword.(缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的,而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语.)

e.g. UNESCO联合国教科文组织； APEC Sars CD laser radar (radio detecting and ranging)； WB世界银行 Initialism: VOA BBC WTO CIA EEC欧洲经济共同体；

Back-formation逆构词法: a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an

existing word.

back-formation(逆构词法): an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by

deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.(构词法中一种不规则的类型,即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀,由此造出一个较短的单词.)

televise (from television) donate (from donation) enthuse (from enthusiasm) Analogical creation 类推构词

Borrowing借词: the taking over of words from other languages

A. loanword(借词): a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.(借词的形式和意义都是借用的,有时为了适应新语言的音位系统,可以有些细小的改变.)

B. .loanblend(混合借词): a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.(指借词的一部分来自本国语,另一部分来自外来语,但是意义全都是借来的.) C. loanshift(转移借词): a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.(转移借词的意义是借用的,但是形式是来自本国语.)

D. Loan translation(翻译借词): a special type of borrowing, in which each morphemeor word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(翻译借词是一种特殊的借用,每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或单词对等地翻译过来的.) Calque仿造词

Coinage : the invention of a new word 3.3.2 Phonological change音位变化 Changes in sounds lead to changes in form

(1)vowel sound change: Great Vowel Shift in history

(2) loss(脱落)----:the loss of sound can first reter to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system.(语音脱落首先可以指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失.) (3)sound addition添加 (4)metathesis换位

(5) assimilation(同化作用): refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called ‖contact‖or ‖contiguous‖ assimilation.(指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化,更明确的叫法是‖接触同化‖ 或 ―邻近同化.‖)

3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change形态句法变化 (1) Morphological change 形态变化 (2) Syntactical change 句法变化 3.3.4 Semantic change语义变化 The change of meaning of a word Broadening词义扩大 Narrowing词义缩小

Meaning shift词义转移: a process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new,

sometimes related meaning.

Class shift (conversion变换)词性变换: zero-derivation零派生 Elevation and degradation

.folk etymology(俗词源): a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(指词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推,导致了新的意义的产生.) 3.3.5 Orthographic change 拼写的变化

第五章 第五章

Chapter 5 Meaning意义

Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of semantics and wording

meaning.

Focal points: Leech‘s seven classifications of meaning, semantic triangle, sense relations between

words and sentences

Teaching difficulties: sense relations between sentences, different types of antonymy Teaching procedure

The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics.关注意义研究的学科. In this chapter, we will study another branch of linguistics-----semantics. . An Introduction

Definition: In linguistics, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. 语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。

Its goal is to reveal how language is matched with their proper meanings by the speakers of that language.

Semantics is an old and young branch.

Dating from Plato, the study of meaning has a long history. Philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists all claim a deep interest in the study of meaning, although they differ in their focus of interest.

Philosophers: the relation between linguistic expression and what they refer to in the real world and

evaluation of the truth value of it.

Psychologists: understanding the working of human mind through language.

So you many find several books bearing the title ―semantics‖ but talking about different things. Here we just focus on linguistic semantics.

In linguistics, compared with other branches we have discussed, semantics is very young and new. The term semantics is a recent addition to the English language. It has only a history of over 100 years.

13 French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖ 17 Breal first use it as the science of meaning. 1900 its English version came out

1980s semantics began to be introduced into China ―Cinderella of linguistics‖ (Kempson) One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning published in 1923.

Semantics----semantics refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, semantics is defined as the study of meaning.语义学是研究语言意义的学科，它主要是对词义和句子两方面进行研究。

5.1. Meanings of “meaning” “意义”的意义P158 1 what is meaning?

What is the meaning of ―desk‖? √

I didn't mean to hurt you. (intend)

Life without faith has no meaning. (value) It was John I mean not Harry (refer to ) √

Though it is difficult to define, ―meaning‖ has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to…linguists argued about ―meaning of meaning‖ fiercely in the result of ―realism‖, ―conceptualism/mentalism‖, ―mechanism‖, ―contextualism‖, ―behaviorism‖, ―functionalism‖, etc. Mention ought to be made of the ―Semantic Triangle Theory‖ of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent. 2. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1) The naming theory命名论----

one of the oldest notions converning meaning, and also a very primitive one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory , the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or label for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，该理论是把词看作所指事物的名

称。

The limitations of the naming theory:

a. first of all, the naming theory seems appliable to nouns only. Nouns can be considered as names or

labels, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, such as ―think‖ ―hard ‖ ―slowly‖ are definitely not labels of objects.

b. Besides, within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the

real world at all such as ―ghost‖ ―dragon‖ ―unicorn‖ and also nouns that do not denote concrete things, but abstract notions such as ―joy‖ ―impulse‖.命名论只能适用于名词，对于动词、形容词、副词就无法解释了。即使是在爱名词范围内也无法解释世界上本不存在的东西，例如―ghost‖ ―dragon‖ ―unicorn‖之类和一些抽象的概念，例如―高兴joy‖―冲动impulse‖等。 (2) the conceptualist view 意念论------

The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e.,between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为词汇与该词汇所指的事物之间的关系不是直接的，而是间接的，是靠人脑中的意念来连接的。词汇是通过意念来指称事物，意念便是词汇的意义。 The conceptualist view is best illustrated by the classic senmantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Odgen and Richards.意念论可由著名的语义三角形来表述。语义三角形是论述和解释语义现象的一种经典理论。 Semantic triangle

Proposed by Ogden & Richards in their ―The Meaning of Meaning‖. They saw the relationship between the word and the thing it refers to is not direct. It‘s mediated by concept. thought or reference

symbol referent

In this diagram, the symbol or form refers to linguistic elements (words, phrases), the referent refers to the things in the real world, and thought or reference refers to ―concept‖. e.g. The dog over there looks unfriendly.

The word ―dog‖ is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a ―dog‖ is like, but it is not directly linked to the referent (the particular dog) in this particular case. Thus, the symbol of a word signifies thing by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of a language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word. Ogden and Richards presented the classic ―Semantic Triangle‖ as manifested in the following diagram, in which the ―symbol‖ or ―form‖ refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the ―referent‖ refers to the object in the world of experience, and ―thought‖ or ―reference‖ refers to concept or notion. Thus, the symbol a word signifies ―things‖ by virtue of the ―concept‖, associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The ―concept‖ thus considered is meaning of the word.语义三角形最大的问题在于词语与所指事物没有必然的联系。同一个事物可能或者可以用不同的词来表示。

(3) contextualism 语境论 What is contextualism?

―Contextualism‖ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the ―situational context‖ and the ―linguistic context‖. 语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义存在与语境之中。语义不是抽象的，它是由语境所决定的。

Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context:它的前提是假设人们可以从语境中推知词义的意义，四个核心因素： (1) the speaker and the hearer; 讲话人和听话人

(2) the actions they are performing at the time; 当时双方在做的事情 (3) various external objects and events; 其他外在的事件或事物 (4) deictic features. 指示成分 （语境中的代词）

The ―linguistic context‖ is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word‘s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.

Fox example: the meaning of the word ―black‖ differ in the two collocation of ―black hair ‖ and ―black coffee‖

(4) Behaviorism 行为主义论

The behaviorism view is illustrated by Bloomfield.

Behaviorism refers to the attmpt to define the meaning of a language form as the ―situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖. Behaviorism somewhat clsoe to contextualism emphasizes on the psychological response.行为主义论和语境论的相似之处，行为主义论也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对所接受的话语的反应。

3. How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?

C. C. Fries (1952) makes a traditional distinction between lexical meaning and structural meaning. The former is expressed by those ―meaningful‖ parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary associated with grammar. The latter expresses the distinction between the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense the number, and the difference between statements, questions and requests. In a word, ―the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meaning of the separate words plus such structural meaning…‖ G. Leech (1981) categorizes seven kinds of meaning, five of which are brought under the ―associative meaning‖. Different from the traditional and the functional approach, F. R. Palmer (1981) and J. Lyons (1977) suggest we draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, the former being directly predictable from the grammatical and lexical features of the sentence, while the latter includes all the various types of meaning not necessarily associated there to. 4. G. Leech recognizes seven types of meaning in his <> as follows:

(1) Conceptual meaning ------Logical, cognitive, or denotation content 逻辑的，认知的，或者外延的内容

conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.

Associative meaning:联想意义

(2) Connotative meaning------what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.内涵意义：通过语言所指所传达的意义

(3) Social meaning-----what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义

(4) Affective meaning-----what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.感情意义：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义

(5) Reflected meaning------what is communicated throght association with another sense of the same expression. 反射意义：通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义

(6) Collocative meaning------what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.搭配意义：通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。

(7) Thematic meaning----what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.主题意义：通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义

5. Leech says that the first type of meaning-----conceptual meaning----makes up the central part. It is ―denotative‖ in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refer to. In this sense, conceptual meaing overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference.利奇指出，意义的第一种类型----概念意义----构成了意义的中心部分。这种意义是―外延―的，因为它关注词和他所指事物之间的联系。从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指称相交叉。

6．Philosophers use connotation, opposite to denotation, to mean the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary, and its connotation is ―biped‖, ―featherless‖, ―rational‖, etc.哲学家们用内涵和外延相对，表示词所指实体的性质。例如，人的外延是任何人，如约翰和玛丽；内涵是―两足动物‖―无羽毛的‖―有理性的‖等等。 7. ―connotative‖----- refers to some additional, especially emotive, meaning. 内涵指的是一些附加的，尤其是感情的意义。

denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes. Types of meaning (G. Leech) 5.2. The referential theory 指称论

1. The referential theory------the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as referential theory.把词语意义和它所指或所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称论。

2. what is sense and what is reference? How are they related?

.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.

sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.

Sense------sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, which is a collection of semantic meanings, abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dectionary compilers are interested in.意义是词汇意义的一个侧面，它是指词汇内在的抽象，于语境之外的意义，也是词典字意。

Reference----reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical, it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality, between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.所指意义是词汇意义的另一个侧面，它是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。所指也叫―参照‖―或―指称‖，是指词和它们所代表的客观事物或现象的关系，它表现于一定的上下文之中。 (1) linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. For

example: I was once bitten by a dog. / Mind you. There is a dog over there. 有着同样意义的词，在不同的情景中，它的所指也不相同。

(2) linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. For example: ―morning star‖ and ― evening star.‖ 有时所指相同，但意义却不同。

３．What is the difference between meaning, concept, connotation, sense, implication, denotation, notation, reference, implicature and signification?

―Meaning‖ refers to the association of language symbols with the real word. ―Concept‖ or ―notion‖ is the impression of objects in people‘s mind.

―connotation‖ is the implied meaning, similar to ―implication‖ and ―implicature‖. ―Sense‖ is the lexical position in which a word finds itself.

―Denotation‖, like ―sense‖, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.

―Reference‖ is the word-object relationship.

―Implicature‖, in its narrow sense, refers to conversational implicature achieved by intentionally violating one of the four CP maxims. ―Signification‖, in contrast with ―value‖, mean the meaning of situation may not have any communicative value, like ―What‘s this?‖

４．Sense & reference

sense and reference are the two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two

related but different aspects of meaning.

Sense-----the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the

linguistic form; It‘s abstract and de-contextualized. It‘s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations. Reference-----What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; It deals with the relationship

between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.

For example, the word ―dog‖ is given the definition ―a common domestic animal kept by human beings for work, hunting etc or as a pet‖. This doesn‘t refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition, so this is the sense of the word ―dog‖. But if we say ―The dog is barking‖, we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation, the word ―dog‖ refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word ―dog‖ in this particular situation.

To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content. But not every word has a reference e.g. grammatical words like but if etc, don‘t refer to anything.

Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.

e.g. I was one bitten by a dog.

Mind you. There is a dog over there.

Here the two ―dog‖ bear the same sense, but have two different references in the two utterances. Sometimes linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense

e.g. ―morning star‖ and ― evening star‖ can refer to the same star ―Venus‖ 5.3 Major Sense relations 涵义关系

Words are in different sense relations with each other

There are generally 3 kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation and

inclusiveness relation 一般来说有三种公认的涵义关系：即相同关系，对立关系和内包关系。

5.3.1. synonymy 同义关系

1. Sameness or close similarity of meaning.

Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.同义关系：相同关系的专业术语 synonymy同义词----synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words that are close in meaning. 指意义相同或相近的词。 2. What is synonymy?

―Synonymy‖ is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers (lexicographers) rely on the existence of synonymy for their definitions. Some semanticians maintain, however, that there are no real synonyms, because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects: In shades of meaning (e.g., finish, complete, close, conclude, terminate, finalize, end, etc.); In stylistic meaning; In emotive meaning (or affective meaning); In range of use (or collocative meaning); In British and American English usages [e.g., autumn (BrE), fall (AmE)]. Simeon Potter said,― Language is like dress. We vary our dress to suit the occasion. We do not appear at a friend‘s silver-wedding anniversary in gardening clothes, nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-jacket.‖ This means the learning of synonyms is important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well. 3. what are the major types of synonyms in English?

Complete synonyms绝对同义词------synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstantces, are rare.

According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups: (1) Dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional dialects 地域性同义词：在不同的地域方言中所用的同义词

These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varienties of the English language. Examples:

Britain English: autuman lift luggage lorry petorl flat windscreen torch railway American English: fall elevator baggage truck gasoline apartment windshield flashlight railroad

Girl—lass/ lassie; liquor/whiskey

(2) stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style文体同义词：用于不同文体的同义词 Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style. Examples: Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent; start, begin, commence; kid, child, offspring; chap, pal, friend, companion; room, chamber; kick the bucket, pop off; die, pass away, decease; (3) emotive synonyms----synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 感性同义词：在感性或评价方面不同的同义词

These are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicatiing the attitudes or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. 这些词的意义相同，但表达了使用者不同的感情，表明了使用者对他所谈论事情的态度。 Examples:

a. “collaborator” and “accomplice” are synonymous in that they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that at collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another in a criminal act. b. economical, frugal , thrifty, mean, miserly, stingy

He has been a very thrifty person all his life. Don‟t you expect a loan from such a miserly man.

c. like , love, admire, adore, worship

He is a nice man and all the pupils like him. The pop singer is especially worshipped by teengers.

(4) Collocational synonyms-----some synonyms differ in their collocation. 搭配区别上的同义词：在搭配上有区别的同义词

i.e. in the words they to together with . this is a matter of usage when we want to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, we can use examples: a. accuse…of; charge…with; rebuke…for

b. the word we use to describe food that has gone bad and is not fit for eating: rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid bacon/butter, sour milk

(5) semantic synonyms----semantically different synonyms 语义上有差异的同义词 These are synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.

Examples : a. the two words “amaze” and “astound”are very close in meaning to the word “surprise”, but they have subtle differences .”Amaze” suggest confusion and bewilderment, “astound”suggests difficulty in believing. Amaze：表示的是一种困惑，不解； astound：表示的是难以置信的情感。

b. “escape ” and “flee” both mean “to get away”

escape: means to get away from something unpleasant or dangerous; flee: means to get away hurriedly 5.3.2 Antonymy 反义关系 Oppositeness of meaning

Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions.

What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?

antonymy反义词------The term “antonymy” is used for oppositions of meaning; words that stand opposite in meaning are called “antonyms”, or opposites反义词是指那些在意义上既相互对立又相互联系的词。

Antonymy fall in there categories 1) gradable antonyms (e.g, good-bad); (2) complementary antonyms (e.g., single-married); (3) relational antonyms (e.g., buy-sell).

①Gradable antonymy (mainly adj.)等级反义关系------member of this kind are gradable. Some antonyms are gradable because they are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, so it is a matter of degree.两个意义形成对立的等级，但在两级之间呈现着一定的梯度关系。

good/ bad(so-so/average) long /short, narrow/ wide big/small; fat/ thin; hot/cold( cool, warm , luke warm); old/young( middle-aged, mature, elderly)

They are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.

②complentary antonymy:互补反义关系------- members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,成员彼此互补

alive/ dead, male/ female, present/ absent, pass/ fail , boy/ girl up/down married/single innocent/guilty odd/even hit/miss

It is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.

In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.中间不存在过渡性

③.relational opposites关系反义词/相关对立反义词 ----pairs of words that the exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relationship opposites.不仅意义相反，都有一种语义上相互依存的挂你。一般大多涉及社会关系和空间关系。 Lend/borrow;

give/receive;

host/guest;

before/after;

above/below;

right/left;

employee/employer; parent/child; wife/husband; give/take; father/daughter;

:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.关系对立：反向反义关系典型地表现在相互社会角色亲属关系，时间和空间等方面，它总是涉及两个实体，一个预设了另一个。 Converse antonymy (relational opposites)

converse antonymy反向反义关系-------: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.反义关系的一种特殊类型，因为对中成员并不一定构成肯定否定的对立。

buy/ sell, lend/ borrow, before /after, teacher/ student, above /below

The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities.

5.3 .3 Hyponymy ( a matter of class membership)上下义关系：一种类和成员之间的关系 the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific words . cow/ animal, rose/ flower, honesty/ virtue

1. hyponymy:----- a relation between two words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).

2. Superordinate上坐标词: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. These members of the same class are co-hyponyms. Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,the word which is more general in meaning.位于上下义关系上位的词语，即类名。一个上坐标词通常有很多下义词。同类中的成员叫做同下义词。 3. hyponyms下义词------the lower terms in hyponymy居于下位的是成员，叫做下义词。

The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific word are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. 4. Explain with examples ―homonymy‖, ―polysemy‖ and ―hyponymy‖.

“Polysemy”多义词----- refers to the semantic phenomenon that a word may have than one meaning.

Polysemy refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same oen word may have more than one meaning, such a word is called a polysemic word.多义词是指一个词具有两个或两个以上的一样。在英语中一词多义是普遍的，而一词单义则是极少数的。

Examples.: (1) ―negative‖ a: a statement saying or meaning ―no‖; b: a refusal or denial; c: one of the following words and expressions:no, not, nothing, never, not at all, etc. d: a negative photograph or film

But we can sometimes hardly tell if a form has several meanings or it is a different word taking this form; hence the difference between polysemy and homonymy.

Homonymy同形异义------Homonymy refers to words are identical in form either sound or spelling, or in both, but different in meaning.同形异义指两个或两个以上的词同形或同音但不同义的现象。

Homophones------two words are idential in sound. 同音 rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek; dear/deer Homographs-------two words are indential in spelling. 同形 bow(v)/bow(n); tear(v)/tear(n) ; lead(v)/lead(n);

bank(a financial institution)/ bank(side of a river)

Complete homonyms-----two words are indentical in both sound and spelling. Fast(adj)/fast(v); scale(n)/scale(v)

Hyponymy上下义关系------refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.上下义关系实际是指两词意义之间的关系分别表示的是逻辑上的属的概念与种的概念。

Examples: superordinate: furniture

Hyponyms : bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, setee,…… Auto-hyponym:自我下义词

5．What is hyponymy? What is a hyponym? What is superordinate?

“Hyponymy” involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when X id a kind of Y, the lower term X is the “hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. Two or more hyponyms sharing the same one superordinate are called “co-hyponyms”. For example, “flower” is the superordinate of “tulip”, “violet” and “rose”, which are the co-hyponyms of “flower”.

5.4 Componential analysis 成分分析

Semantic features语义特征 semantic components语义成分 1. Analysis of meaning includes:

a. componential analysis成分分析------a way to analyze lexical-meaning b. predicatin analysis述谓结构分析-------sentence meaning 2. what is componential analysis?什么是成分分析？

“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.

Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components (called semantic features)成分分析法：是一种分析词汇抽象意义的方法。成分分析法研究的是“概念上”的词汇-----语义关系(conceptual---lexical relations)的一种尝试。其基本特点是，所有实词的意义都可以分解成一些“语义成分”。这种语义成分也可称作语义特征（Semantic features）、语义标示（Semantic Markers）、或义素（Sememes）

Semantic features are parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.

Plus(+) and minus(-) signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and those features symbols are usually written in capitalized letters.

The study of meaning in any language shows that lexical items overlap in meaning and share

common properties e.g. Lions and tigers both contain an element of ―wild animal ness‖. Calf puppy and baby can be considered as all sharing an element of non adultness, while cow, woman and tigress all containing an element of ―femaleness, But because of other properties each word contains, none of them will be said as being synonymous to any one of the others.

One attempt to account for this phenomenon is to assume that lexical items, like phonemes are made up out of a number of component parts. Componential analysis is often seen as a process aiming at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features or properties, which are also called components by some linguists. One way of describing the components of a word is to use feature symbols, which are usually written in capitalized letters, with ―+‖ ―-― before them, plus sign indicates the presence of a certain property, and minus sign indicates the absence of it.

For example, we may “clip” the following words “Man”, “Woman”, “Boy” and “Girl” so that we have only separate parts of them.

man : + HUMAN+ ADULT+ MALE woman: + HUMAN+ ADULT- MALE boy: + HUMAN- ADULT+ MALE girl: + HUMAN- ADULT- MALE

words like father, mother, daughter and son, which involves a relation between two entities, may be shown as follows:

father = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X) mother = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X)

verbs can also be analyzed in this way, for example take = CAUSE (X, (HAVE (X,Y)) give= CAUSE (X, (HAVE (X,Y)))

•Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain words, we may better account for sense

relations,

Synonymy ---- having the same semantic components Antonymy ----- having a contrasting component

Hyponymy-----having all semantic components of another.

•Disadvantages: It would be senseless to analyze the meaning of every word by breaking it into its

meaning components.

3. semantic component语义成分:---- a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two

values,e.g<+human>又叫语义特征。

.compositionality组合原则-----: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定的。

.selection restriction选择-----:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.

4. In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features? In the light of componential analysi, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features; the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features: it is these different features that distinguish word meaning . similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound-features; a phoneme can be broke down into these distinctive sound features and it

is these sound features that distinguish different sounds. 5.Sense relations between sentences句子间的语义关系 Sense relationships also exist between sentences Six major sense relations between sentences. (1)A is synonymous with B 同义句关系

Examples:a. A: He was a bachelor all his life. B: He never married all his life. Ais the same with B.

b. A: The boy killed the dog. B: The dog was killed by the boy.

In terms of truth condition, if A is true, Bis true, and if A is false, B is false. (2) A is inconsistent with B 对立句关系

A: John is married B: John is a bachelor

A: This is my first visit to your country. B: I have been to your country before. In term of truth value: If A is true, B is false and if A is false, B is true. (3). A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴涵句关系

Entailment 衍推------relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other. E.g. “Mary is running” entails, among other things “Mary is not standing still.”

A: He has been to France. B: He has been to Europe. A: John picked a tulip. B: John picked a flower.

Entailment is a relation of inclusion if x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.两个命题之间的语义关系或逻辑关系。

In term of truth value: If x is true, y is necessarily true; If x is false, y may be true or false; If y is true, x may be true or false, If Y is false, x is false. In formula: A→B

-B→-A

(4) Presupposition (A presupposes B)预设句关系 A Presupposes B (B is prerequisite of A)

A: The queen of England is old. B: England has a queen. A: Is your father at home? B: You have a father. A: John‘s bike needs repairing . B: John has a bike.

It refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker doesn‘t assert but assumes the hearer can identify form the sentence.

Presupposition------Similar to entailment, presupposition is a semantic relationship or logical connection. The above-mentioned A ,B is also true with presupposition.

In term of truth value: If A is true, B must be true. If A is false, B is still true; If B is true, A is either true or false. If B is false, no truth value can be said about A. In formula: A→B

-A→B

(5) A is a contradiction 矛盾关系

When Ais contradiction, it is invariably false.

My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

(6) A is semantically anomalous 语义上的不规则关系

When A is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction.

The table has bad intentions. The blackboard has a bad temper. 5.5 . Sentence meaning句子意义

1．The defining of sentence meaning has turned out to be a more complicated issue than the defining of the meanings of individual lexical items.

The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all it components.

The meaning of a sentence is a product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.

2．What is predication analysis? What is a one-place predicate? What is a two-place predicate? What is a no-place

predicate? What are down-graded predications?

“Predication analysis” is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. “Predication” is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). The “predicate” is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. We may now distinguish a “two-place predicate” (which governs two arguments, e.g., subject and object), a “one-place predicate” (which governs one argument, i.e., subject) and a “no-place predicate” that has simply no argument (no real subject or object).

述谓结构分析：所谓述谓是指句子的抽象的语义内容，绝大多数的句子内容都是由一个人或物以及对这个人或物的表述构成的。从语义结构角度看，这两部分分别称为论元（argument）和谓语（predicate）。所谓述谓结构分析是指通过对这两部分的分析以达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。“述谓”和“谓语化”是所有的健全语句（如命题、即肯定句、否定句、疑问句和祈使句等）的共同特征。因此，语义学家就用“述谓”这一范畴并把它分解成变元和谓语，前者是“逻辑参加者”，后者是“关系因素”，负责把变元联系起来。

5.5.1 An integrated theory 一个整体理论

the principle of compositionality组合原则-----the idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the

meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality.句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定，这一观点通常叫做组合原则。

5.5.2 Logical semantics 逻辑语义学

1. prepositional logic命题逻辑:---- also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.也叫命题演算或句子演算，研究命题的真值条件“复合命题真值是如何由成分命题真值及成分命题之间的关系决定的。

proposition命题;-----what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.命题是陈述句并用语叙述事件时所表达的意义。

predicate logic谓词逻辑------: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.也叫谓语演算，它研究简单马那瓜体的内部结构。

Prepositions-----whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is property

of propositions that they have truth values.

2.

What is a logical operator?

“Logical operator ” make only one kind of the “logical factors” or “logical means”, others being “definiteness”, “coreference”, “tense” and “time”, since predication is not the whole of a sentence or proposition. All these factors play a part in prepositional actualization of the predication ---the pining of a predication down a claim about reality. Example of logical operators are “not”, “and”, “or”, “some”, “if”, “false”, etc. The term “logical operation” reflects the fact that these meaning elements are often thought of as performing operations, controlling elements of the semantic system, so to speak.

3. What is grammaticality? What might make agrammatically meaningful sentence semantically

meaningless?

Grammaticality-----the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarity semanticaly well-formed, ie. It may not make sense at all.

4. Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:

(1) The man sells ice-cream.------two place predication consisting of two arguments: MAN and

ICE-CREAM, and the predicate (SELL)

(2) Is the baby sleeping?-----one-place predication BABY(SLEEP) (3) It is snowing.-----no-place predication : (SNOW)

(4) The tree grows well.----one-place predication : TREE(GROW)

(5) The old man sells toys.-----Two-place predication: MAN and TOYS are predicate(SELL) (6) It is raining.---No-place predication (7) It is late.-----No-place predication.

(8) Is the baby crying? -----One-place predication: BABY(CRY)

(9) The flower smells sweet.----One-place predication :FLOWER(SMELL)

5. Sentence meaning is that there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and

semantic meaning.

The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness.

Selectional restrictions------whether a sentence is senmantically meaningful is governed by rules, i.e., constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

In semantic analysi of a sentence, ite basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms.

A predication consists of argument and predicate.

An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.

A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

6. Accoding to J. Lyons, ―A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.‖ In this sense, we may very loosely equate the proposition of a sentence with its meaning.根据J. Lyons，“命题是陈述句被用于陈述事件时所表达的意义。“在这一意义上，我们可以非常不严格地把句子的命题和它的意义等同起来。

7．A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value. It is either true of false. And

the truth value of a composite proposition is said to be the function of , or is determined by, the truth values of its component propositions and the logical connectives used in it.命题的一个极为重要的性质是有真值，它要么真要么假。复合命题的真值据称是成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词的函数，通俗地说，其真值由成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词决定。 Homework

Exercises: Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:

A: Tom‘s wife is pregnant. B: Tom has a wife.

A: My sister will soon be divorced. B: My sister is a married woman. A: He likes swimming. B: He likes sports. A: John is an orphan. B: John has no father. 第六章

Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind语言的心理过程

6.1 Introduction 绪言

1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说，语言是思维的镜子。

2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 语言是人类指挥的结晶，通过意志和意识觉察布道的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。

3. Psycholinguistics ―proper‖ can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written)“准确的”心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介（口头的或书面的）进行的语言储存，理解，产生和习得过程的研究。

4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。

5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language.心理语言学和语言心理学的区别：

(1). It is perhaps useful to distinguish psycholinguistics from the psychology of language, which deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication ,which includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题；而且从交际心理学角度看，它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非语言交际。 (2) A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves cognltive psycholinguists as opposed to experimental psycholingusists. The former are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind, whereas the latter are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to particular word.在心理语言学内部，一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作“认知心理语言学家”，以与“实验心理语言学家”相对。前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论，后者则更关心经验主义的事实比如对一个特定的单词的反应速度。

6. psycholinguistics:心理语言学 is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word). 6.1.1 Evidence 论据

1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 语言学家赞同从共时言语描写中汲取论据；而心理学家则更倾向于实验研究。

2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphastic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 心理语言学的研究对象一方面是正常的成人和儿童，另一方面是有语言障碍的失语症人群。关于失语症患者的一个基本假设是：语言能力某方面的缺失，可能会引导我们发现大脑中拿部分于其他部分而起作用。 6.1.2 Current issues 近期主题

1. The human language system is likely to be ―modular‖, in the sense of being constituted out of a number of separate but interacting components. 人类语言系统可能是“模块化”的，因为它由一些相互并且相互作用的部分组成。

2. modular模块:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 3. encapsulation 分隔

4. the relationship between structure and process 结构和过程之间的关系

It is generally agreed that the mind is likely to contain certain linguistic structures which are utilized in the course of various ―processes‖, such as comprehending or producing speech. Some researches have argued that structures and processes are linked only indirectly, others that the connection is close one. This debate is often a human ―grammar‖, and the extent to which the former has psychological reality.普遍认为，思维中可能容纳了一些确定的语言结构以用于各种“过程”----如理解或产生言语的过程。一部分研究者坚持结构和过程只有间接联系，另一部分则认为该联系是紧密的。对着仪分歧人们经常用语言学家的语法和普通人的“语法”两者间的关系来形容；并且从这个角度上说，前者具有心理现实性。

5．psycholinguistic reality心理语言现实: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.

6. The three major strands of psycholinguistic research are the comprehension, production, and acquisition language.心理语言学研究的三个主要分支是语言理解，语言产生和语言习得。

language perception语言感知---:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.

.language comprehension语言理解: ----one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.

.language production语言产生:----- a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.

(1)How do people use their knowledge of language, and how do they understand what they hear or read?人们如何运用他们的语言知识，如何弄懂他们所听到或谈到的？

(2). How do they produce message that others can understand in turn?人们如何生产出他人作为接受者所能理解的信息？

(3). How language is represented in the mind and how language is acquired?语言在思维中如何表现、它是怎样习得的？

6.2 Language Comprension 语言理解

1. Most of psycholinguistic research and theories are concerned with the comprehension of text, but the assumption is that they are also relevant to speech comprehension.大多数心理语言学的研究和理论关注于语篇的理解，但其前提是它们也和言语理解相关。 Text Comprension 语篇理解 6.2.1 Word recognition 词语识别

1. An initial step in understanding any message is the recognition of words.理解任何信息的初始步骤都是词语的识别。

2. cohort theory集群理论-------: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a ―recognition lexicon‖in which each word is represented by a full and independent‖recognistion element‖.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.

cohort theory: it refers to hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.假设自动的词语识别以一组词的形成开始：人们首先感知首音，然后一个接着一个；随着接受的音增多，词语的集群数下降。

3. One of the most important factors that effects word recognition is how frequently the word is used in a given context. 影响词语识别的最重要的因素之一是词语在已知语篇或语境中的出现频率。

frequency effect-----频率效应: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the language.频率效应描述了这种附加的效益：一个单词的识别要归因于它在语言中更频繁的使用。

4．Recency effects近期效应-----describe the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.近期效应描述的附加效益是：单词的识别归因于它在语篇或语境中的重复出现。

5. Another factor that is involved in word recognition is Context.词语识别涉及的另一个因素是语境。 6. Semantic association network语义关联网络-----represents the relationships between various semantically related words. Word recognition is thought to be faster when other members of the association network are provided in the discourse.该网络表现了各种语义相关的词之间的关系。当话语提供了关联网络中的其他成员时，词语识别会更快。 6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义

1. lexical ambiguity:词汇歧义-------ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat. bug (臭虫；) ； rose（玫瑰；rise的过去式） 2. There are two main theories:

(1). All the meanings assocatied with the word are accessed, and (2) only one meaning is accessed initially. 主要有两种理论：搜索该词所有意义；开始只考虑其中一个意义。 3. e.g. :

a. After taking the right turn at the intersection….在路口右转之后；在路口沿正确的方向转弯之后 ―right‖ is ambiguous: correct vs. rightward

b. After taking the left turn at the intersection…在路口左转之后 ―left‖ is unambiguous 6.2.3 Syntactic processing句法过程

1. Once a word has been dentified , it is used to construct a syntactic structure.单词一经识别就用来构建句法结构。

2. As always, there are cinokucatuibs due to the ambiguity of individual words and to the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases. Sometimes there is no way to determine which structure and meaning a sentence has.经常地，由于单个词语有歧义，或者词组成短语有多种可能方式，这一过程变得复杂，有时甚至无法确定句子的结构和意义。

e.g. The cop saw the spy with the binoculars. ―with the binoculars‖ is ambiguity

(1) the cop employed binoculars in order to see the spy.用双筒望远镜观察间谍。 (2).it specifies ―the spy has binoculars‖. 看到了带有双筒望远镜的间谍。

3. Some ambiguities are due to the ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence.有些歧义归因于句中单词兼属不同范畴。

e.g. the desert trains trains (培训；列车)

the desert trains man to be hardly. 沙漠使人坚韧。

The desert trains seldom run on time.沙漠列车从不准时。

4. One interesting phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences is called the ―garden path‖.

一个与这种歧义句相关的有趣现象叫做“花园小径。“

Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turns out to be incorrect. Some times people never figure it out. They have been ―led up the garden path‖, fooled into thinking the sentence has a different structure than it has. Reduced relative clauses quite frequently cause this feeling of having been garden-pathed.花园小径句就是那些实际解释不同于我们一开始所想结构的句子。如果证明开始的选择是错误的，就要花相当长的一段时间来找出另外一种结构。有时甚至永远也找不出来，他们被“引到花园小径中去“了，被”骗“去思索句子的另外一种结构，而非其表面上显示的。降级关系从句经常使人有这种走入花园小径的感觉。

e.g. ―The horse raced past the barn fell.‖ Means ―the horse that was raced past the barn fell.‖比赛跨越障碍的马摔倒了。

5. the minimal attachment theory 最小接触理论-------It would be inefficient for people to assume all these infinite structures until they get some positive evidence for one of them. And if they arbitrarily chosse one of the possibilities, they are most likely to choose the simplest. The idea is that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences. This is called the minimal attachment theory.如果人们分析所有这些无穷的可能直到发现了确切证据能支持其中一种，效率就将非常低。而如果是从所有可能性中任选一种的话，多数可能选择最简单的。也就是说，人们解释句子结构时，一开始构建的是最简（或者说最小复杂性）句法结构，这种观点叫做最少接触理论。

6.2.4 Semantics and sentence memroy 语义学和句子记忆

assimilation theory同化理论------: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows. 6.2.5 Basic processes in reading 阅读的基础过程 1. Eye movement 眼部移动

2. The perceptual span 感知时距------which is the range of letters from which useful information is

extracted. 即能够提取到有用信息的字母范围。 3. The immediacy assumption 即时假定

immediate assumption即时假定:------- the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.读者应该每遇到一个单词就马上展开所需过程来理解该单词及它与句中之前单词的关系。 e.g. Tomorrow was the annual, one-day fishing context and fisherment would invade the place. Some of the best bass guitaristis in the country would come to this spot.明天是纪念日，有一天的捕鱼竞赛，渔夫们将拥入此地。乡村里一些最好的低音吉他演奏者也将到场。 Bass (颅鱼；音调低的)

6.3 Discourse/ text interpretations话语/语篇解释

1. Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.话语作为语境，影响句子和词平面的解释，给可能有歧义的词或短语指示一个确定的解释方向。

2. context effect语境效应-----: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.

3. When we are trying to understand a sentence, we often make use of information that is not contained directly within the sentence itself. This is known as contextual information, and we can distinguish between two kinds of context: general and specific.人们尝试理解句子时，经常会利用一些句子本身并不直接包含的信息，叫做语境信息；我们可以区分两种语境：常识的和特殊的。

General context effects occur when our general knowledge about the world influences language comprehension. 常识语境效应发生在我们对世界的常识影响语言理解时；

Specific context effects involve information obtained from earlier parts of a discourse.特殊语境效应则需要甬道从话语前面部分获取的信息。

4. General context effects occur all the time, because a crucial aspect of language comprehension

involves making use of any relevant general knowledge that we possess.常识语境效应随时都在发

生，因为语言理解的一个极重要的方面就是要利用我们拥有的任何相关常识。 6.3.1 Schemata and inference drawing 图式和推论

1. schemata in text语篇图式: packets of stored knowledge in language processing存储知识的信息包 2. The features of schemata are as follows:

(1). Schemata can vary considerably in the information they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.图式可以随其存储信息发生相当大的改变，从非常简单到非常复杂。

(2). Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition to a rather general restaurant schema orscript, we probably also have more specific restaurant schemata for different kinds of restaurant(e.g. fast-food places, up-market French restaurants, and so so.) 图式往往是分等级地组织起来的：如，在很普通的餐馆图式或底本之外，我们可能也有不同种类的特殊餐馆图式（像快餐店，高档法国餐馆等等。）

(3). Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptually dirven way to facilitate interpretation of environmental stimuli..图式以一种自上而下或概念驱动的方式促进对环境刺激物的解释。

3. inference in context语篇推论: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context. 6.3.2 story structure 故事结构

story structure故事结构-------: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized macroproposition:宏观命题---general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.

macrostructure 宏观结构

6.4 Language production 语言产生

1. Language production is very definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on.人们说话或者写文章是为了交朋友、影响别人、传递信息等等，在这个意义上，语言产生无疑是一种目标驱动的活动。

2. The two forms of language production are speech production and writing.语言产生的两种形式：言语产生和文字。

6.4.1 Speech production 言语产生

1. five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence: the message-level representation; the functional-level representation; the positional-level representation; the phonetic-level representation; the articulatory-level representation五个不同的表达层面：信息层面表达式；功能层面表达式；命题层面表达式；语音层面表达式；发音层面表达式。

2. propositions命题:-----whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.

3. parsing解析------:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.

4. The classic error of this type is the spoonerism (or slip of the tongue), where the initial letter or letters of two words are transposed.属于这种类型的典型错误是首音互换（或叫“舌头打滑”）：两个单词的前个或前几个字母互换了位置。

5. Other errors also demonstrate the existence of forward planning. An anticipation error occurs when a word is spoken earlier in the sentence than it should be (e.g. the school is at school). A similar type of error is the exchange error, in which two items within a sentence are swapped. (e.g. This is the happiest life of my day.)其他错误也说明了“预先计划”的存在。当一个单词先于它应该出现的位置出现在句中时，预期错误就产生了。一种相似的错误类型是交换错误，即句中两个词项交换了位置。 6. Given this sequence, it would be possible for the grammatical structure of a spoken sentence to be correct even though some of the words were incorrectly positioned. Precisely this is found withmorpheme-exchange errors, in which the roots or basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (e.g. He has already trunked two packs.)说出的句子语法结构正确而一些词位置错误。这一现象准确地说是词素交换错误，其中语法结构没变而两个单词的词根或基础

形式交换了位置。（例如，trunk与pack互换了位置。） 6.4.2 Written language 书面语

1. writing process书面语过程: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.

2. According to Hayes and Flower , writing essentially consisits of three inter-related processes: the planning process; the sentence generation process; the revison process.文字处理本质上由三个相互关联的过程组成：计划过程；句子生成过程；修改过程。

3. In general, the processes operate in the order: planning, sentence generation, and revision.这些过程按如下顺序工作：计划，句子生成，修改。

4. Strategic knowledge学习策略知识------which is knowledge of the metods used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherhent and well-organized. 它是关于构建写作计划所用方法的知识，使用那些方法可以使写作计划更加连贯，富于组织性。

4. Knowledge-telling strategy知识讲述策略------where they simply wirte down everything they can think of that is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way.即不用任何方式组织信息，只是写出所有能想到的与主题相关的东西。 5. Knowledge-transforming strategy 知识转换策略 Exercises:

Here are some more examples of garden path sentence. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is ?下面是一些“花园小径”句，请指出其结构。

1. The boat floated downstream sank. The boat/ which was floated downstream / sank.那只顺流而下

的船沉了。

2. While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap. While Mary was mending / the sock fell off her lap.

玛丽正在缝补时，短袜从她膝盖上滑了下来。

3. The daughter of the king‘s son admires himself. (The daughter of the king)‘s son admires himself.

国王女儿的儿子崇拜他自己。

4. The florist sent the flowers was pleased. The florist / whom was sent the flowers /was pleased.收到

鲜花的种花人非常高兴。

5. The cotton cloting is made from grows in Mississippi. The cotton /which clothing is made from /

grows in Mississippi.纺织用棉产于密西西比。

6. They told the boy that the girl met the story. They told the boy / that the girl met/ the story. 他们把

故事告诉了女孩遇到的那个男孩。 The examples of cohort theory:

Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim; an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream; See Mable----seem able; well fare----welfare lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn 第七章

chapter 7 language, culture, and socitey语言，文化和社会 7.1 Language and culture语言和文化

7.1.1 How does language relate to culture?语言如何与文化相联系？

1. It has become axiomatic to state there exists a close relationship between language and culture.语言和文化之间有密切的联系。

2. Some change was developed at the start of the 20th century: an anthropological orientation in the study of language was developed both in England and in North American. What characterized this new tradition was its study of language a sociocultural context.一些变化在20世纪的时候出现了，无论是在英国还是在北美，语言研究都开始了人类学转向，这种新传统的特征就是将语言研究置于社会文化的语境之中。

3. Bronislaw Malinowski and Jonh P. Firth can be regarded as the pioneers of this movement in

England.

马林诺夫斯基和弗斯是这一运动的先驱。

Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, and Benjamin Lee Whorf are naturally seen as the representatives of a parallel but independent tradition from North America. 鲍阿斯，萨丕尔和沃尔夫是北美代表。

4. Firth developend his own theory of context of situation, which can be summarised as follows: 弗斯提出了自己的情景语境理论，总结如下：

A. The relevant features of the participants: person, personalities; 参与者的相关特征：人物，人品 (i) The verbal action of the participants 参与者的言语行为

(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.参与者的非言语行为； B. The relevant objects 有关事物

C. The effects of the verbal action.言语活动的影响

Firth here seemed to suggest the creativity and diversity of linguistic idiosyncrasy in language use. 弗斯在这里指出了语言使用中语言的创造性和多样性。

On the other hand, what Firth emphasized in this theory is quite similar to a more updating sociological axiom in language use, namely, ―who speaks or writes what language or what laguage variety to whom and when and to what end.另一方面，弗斯在该理论中所强调的内容十分接近一个更新的关于语言使用的社会学公理，即“谁在什么时候对谁说了或写了什么语言或使用了什么语言变体，得到了什么结果。”‖ 5. M.A.K.Halliday, whose contributions to sociolinguistics could be better seen from his understanding of language from a socially semiotic or interactional perspective, his functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential, and his linguistic model in the study of literature.韩礼德对社会语言学的贡献可以从下列方面更清楚地看出来：他从社会符号或者交互功能方面来解释语言，他将语法解释为具有意义潜势的功能观，以及他在文学研究中建立的语言模型。 6. ethnography of communication 交际民族学 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学

Sapir-Whorf hypotheses 萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说

7．linguistic relativity语言相对性----: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there‘s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.

.linguistic determinism语言决定论:---- one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,i.e.language determines thought.

On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as languistic determinism and linguistic relativity-----a view which ―was first expounded by the German ethnologist, Wilhelm von Humboldt‖. 一方面语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构差异越大，所反映的对世界的认识越不同。因此这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。实际上，这种看法“最早由德国民族学家洪堡特详加阐释”

8. if we want to do a good job in Crosscultural communication, there are five types of sub-culture we shoud be fully aware of :如果想出色地完成跨文化交际工作，需要充分认识五种次文化形式： Ecological culture 生态文化 Linguistic culture 语言文化 Religious culture宗教文化 Material culture 物质文化 Social culture 社会文化

7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说

1. The stong version of the theory强式说 -----refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasiziing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.指的是这一理论的初始假说，即强调语言在塑造我们的思维方式过程中起到了决定性的作用。

2. The weak version of the theory弱式说-----is modified type of its original theory , suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-culture differences thus produced in our way of thinking are relatives, rather than categorical.是初始假说的修正形式，即认为语

言、文化和思维之间有相关性，但是产生不同思维方式的跨文化差异只是相对的，而不是绝对的。 7.1.3 Case studies 个案研究 1. get your hands dirty means:

You are practicing something 你在做什么事情 You are engaged in doing sth你在从事什么事情 2. have enough dumbbells 愚蠢的家伙

7.1.4 To which extent do we need culture in our linguistic study?文化在语言研究中占什么地位？ Motivation 动因 directionality 方向性

7.1.5 Culture in language teaching classroom语言教学中的文化 7.2 Language and society 语言和社会

7.2.1 How does language relate to society?语言如何和社会联系？

Monistic 一元性 Dualistic view 二元观 autonomous pursuit 自治性 7.2.2 A situalionally and socially variationist perspective 情景和社会变异视角

1. We may expand the scope of our observation by introducing some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include : class; gender; age; ethnic identity; education background; occupation and religious belief.我们可以通过引进一些社会因素来扩展我们的详细观察视野。这些因素被认为会在一定的社会背景中影响我们的言语行为，主要包括：阶级；性别；年龄；种族；教育背景；职业；和宗教信仰。 2. phonological variations 语音变体

3. gender difference性别差异:---- a difference in a speech between men and women is‖genden difference‖

4. linguistic sexism语言性别歧视------:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women‘s place in society.

5. variationist linguistics变异语言学:----- a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers‘social starts and phonological variations.

7.2.3 What shoud we know more about sociolinguistics?对于社会语言学我们海应该知道些什么？

1. sociolinguistics of society社会语言学;-----one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.

2. sociolinguistics of language语言学社会学:----- one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context. 7.2.4 What implication can we get from sociolinguistics?从社会语言学中可以得到什么启示？

1. communicative competence交际能力:---- a speaker‘s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,etc.governing the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley‘s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.

2. grmmarians 语法学家 active language users 能动的语言使用者 第八章

Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用

Teaching aims: enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics and its two

important theories. Focal points: Speech act theory, the theory of conversational implicature言语行为理论，会话含义理论

Teaching difficulties: Speech act theory, the cooperative principle and its four maxims Teaching procedure

An introduction to pragmatics

Today is Sunday.

It can be 1.an answer for ―what day is it today?‖

2. statement 3. complaint 4. reminder

5. criticism (reproach)

6.question ―Today is Sunday?‖

Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义vs 语句意义 Speaker‟s meaning 说话者意义 contextual meaning语境意义 Pragmatics 语用学=meaning- senmantics

The study of language in use or the study of meaning of language in context

Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics. It developed in the 1960s and 1970s.

Morris first proposed the word ―pragmatics‖ in his ―Foundations of the Theory of Signs‖. He said that the study of semiotics includes three parts: syntax (sign---sign); semantics (sign---word); pragmatics (sign---its user).

1977 Journal of Pragmatics published in Holland signified the start of pragmatics. 1.what is pragmatics?

Pragmatics can be simply defined as the study of language in use. It is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader. It has, consequently, more to do with the analysi of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves.

Pragmatics is comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics; its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted from the expansion of the study of linguistics, expecially that of semantics. A general definition of pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. The scope of pragmatic study includes ―speech act theory‖, ―context‖, ―principle of coversation‖ etc.语用学是上个世纪60，70年代兴起的语言学的一个新的分支，它所研究的是语言同其使用者之间的关系，即在一定的交际环境中如何使用语言，包括说出忽然理解实际的话语两个方面。语用学 研究范围包括言语行为，会话含义，会话结构等方面。 2. why must we distinguish using language to do something and using language in doing something? There is a wide variety of possible uses of language, but before we survey these various uses, we must first distinguish between using language to do something and using languag in doing something. When we focus on what people use language to do, we focus on what a person is doing with words in particular situations; we focus on the intentions, purposes, beliefs, and desires that a speaker has is speaking.

3. what does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?

Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional senmantics is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. Pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally senmantics studies meaning in isolation from the contexts of use. 4.How is the notion of context interpreted?

Context-----context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.

The notion of context is essential to the pragmatics study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer.语境是语用学研究中的关键概念。因为语境在很大程度上决定着话语意义或话语意义的正确理解。因此，语境可以理解为交际双方共同拥有的知识。

The shared knowledge is of two types:语境分为―上下文‖和―情景语境‖两类。 (1)The knowledge of the language they use

(2)The knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. ―上下文‖语境是指语篇中的上文和下文，即某一词语或话语的前后左右相伴的词语。

―情景‖语境是指话语说出的前因后果。说话人和听话人双方的关系，双方共同的背景知识，典故，言语意图等。

5.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?

Sentence meaning------refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstrac, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.句子意义是抽象的，是按语法规则生成的，是静态的。

Utterance meaning-----refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. It becomes an utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used.话语意义是指在句子意义的基础上，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，它体现了说话人的意图和目的，它是动态的。

Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning. Sentence meaning is concrete and context-dependent and utterance meaning is abstract and de-contextualized. For example: the dog is barking; my bag is heaven.

If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we are treating it as a sentence.

If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.

Most utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some cannot enen be restorted to complete sentences. For example, ―Good morning!‖ ―Hi!‖ and ―Ouch!‖ are all utterances, which have meaning in communication. If ―Good morning!‖ can be restorted to ―I wish you a good morning,‖ we do not know form which complete sentences ―Hi!‖ ―Ouch!‖have been derived. 6.Try to think of context in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:

(a) The room is messy.

A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room. (b) I can‘t work under untidy circumstances. A request to someone to tidy up the circumstances. (c) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.

A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady‘s appearance. 8.1. Speech act theory 言语行为理论

a theory about language used to do things.

The theory originated with British philosopher John Austin in the 50‘s of the 20th century and

developed by J. R . Searle. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking, thus linguistic communication is composed of a succession of acts.

What is Speech act theory?

―Speech act theory‖ was proposed by Jonh Austin and has been developed by his student J. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to ―do things‖, to perform acts.―言语行为‖理论是由英国牛津大学道德哲学教授奥斯汀建立的。他认为人们说话时不仅是传递信息或描述物体，通常是言语本身即是一种行为，即以言行事。

Typical utterances are ―I do‖, ―I name the ship Elizabeth‖ ―I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow.‖. In these cases the uttering of the relevant words is the leading event, without the action specified cannot be done. 例如，―我答应……‖―我打赌……‖―就叫她小芳吧！‖之类的句子就是典型的行事句。

The concept of constatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the prelocutionary act and the five categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R. Searle constitute the speech act theory. ―行事话语‖，―述事话语‖，―言内行为‖―言外行为‖―言后行为‖以及塞尔勒的关于言外行为的五大分类构成了言语行为理论的核心。 8.1.1. Performatives and constatives 施为句和表述句

Austin‟s first shot at the speech act theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.奥斯汀理论的第一步是认为句子有两类：施为句和表述句。

1. Performatives施为句: In speech act theory proposed by John Austin, it‘s an utterance which

performs an acts,

Performatives----an utterance by which a speaker does something, as apposed to a constative by

which makes a statement which may be true or false. Performatives are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable, in other words, performatives are utterance that ―do things.‖施为句是用来实施某种行为的，说话本身就是在做一件事，因此无真假之别，只有是否合适之分。

The sentences cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of the

doing of an action, so they are called performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs.句子并不是用来描述事物的，没有真假。说出这些句子是或者部分是实施某种行为。所以这些句子称为施为句。其中的动词称为施为性动词。 E.g. I name this ship Titanic. 我把这只船命名为泰坦尼克号。

I declare the meeting open. 我宣布会议开始。

I warn you to leave away (suggestion) 我警告你快离开。 I bequeach my watch to my brother.我把手表遗赠给我弟弟。 I promise to finish it in time.我答应按时完成。 I apologize. 我道歉。

I warn you that the bull will charge.我警告你这头公牛会撞人。

I bet you six pences it will rain tommorrow.我用六便士跟你打赌明天会下雨。 2.Constatives: utterances which are intended for narration, description etc.

Constative表述句------ an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false

Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verfiable and constatives bearing the truth-value.表述句是指各种陈述，其作用是描写某一件事件，过程或状态，有真假之分。

A description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pourin. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences of this type are known as constatives. E.g. I pour some liquid into the tube.描述了说话人说话的同时在做什么。说话人不能通过说这句话把液体倒入试管，他必须同时做倒液体的动作。否则，我们可以说他作了虚假陈述。这样的句子叫表述句。例如：我把一些液体倒入试管。

An utterance which asserts something that‘s either true or false, such as ―It‘s raining‖ ―The cat is in the room‖.

The felicity conditions suggested by Austin is as follows:施为句的合适条件：

A . (1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, 必须有一个相应的规约程序；

(2) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.相关的参与者和环境是合适的；

B. The procedure must be executed (1). Correctly ; (2) completely. 该程序必须正确全面地得到执行；

C. Very often,通常

(1). The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings ad intentions ;有关人员必须

有相关的思想，感情和意图。

(2) must follow it up with actions as specified. 能付诸实际行动。

Later, Austin realized that such distinction is not scientific, because all sentences can be used to do things. ―saying is performing‖.

In some senses, constatives are also performatives. e.g. The cat is on the mat. (implicit performatives)

I tell you that the cat is on the mat. (explicit performatives) I‘ll be there at two o‘clock. (implicit performatives)

I promise to se there at two o‘clock. (explicit performatives)

Astin explored the possibility of separating performatives from constatives on grammatical and lexical criteria. 奥斯汀从语法和词汇上区别施为句和表述句。

(1)Typical performatives use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, and performative verbs.典型的施为句一般是第一人称单数作主语；用一般现在时；用直接语气；用主动语态；动词是施为性动词。

Exceptions: Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass.行人禁止践踏草坪。 Turn right. 向右转。 Thank you. You did it.你犯了罪。

(2)the most typical constative verb state, which is used to describe things, may be used to do things. In uttering ―I state that I‘m alone responsible‖, the speaker has made a statement and undertaken the responsibility. “state” 一般被用来表述事物，是最典型的表述动词，却也可以被用来做事。说“I state that I‘m alone responsible”（我声明我承担全部责任）的时候，说话人就发表了声明，承担了责任。

8.1.2. A theory of the illocutionary act 行事行为理论

1.A speaker is in most cases performing 3 acts simultaneously while making an utterance.

According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an

utterance.？ Give an example.

locutionary act言内行为:------the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It‘s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and phonology.Namely.,the act of saying something :the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.言内行为指的是用句子来叙述，报告，描写。言内行为指话语过程本身，诸如：句法，词汇与发言等。

illocutionary act言外行为:-----the act of expressing the speaker‘s intention; it is the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker‘s intention. The making of a statement, offer promise, etc, in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it. the act of using a sentence to perform a function such as command, request, etc言外行为是指说话过程中通过话语的一些约定俗成的关联力量进行陈述，承诺等。说话带有目的性。

perlocutionary act言后行为---- the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it‘s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act perfomed by saying something, the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances. the results or effects that are produced by means of saying sth言后行为是指行为本身就是讲话的结果。即讲话所产生的情感，思想，行动等的某种反应。 Illocutionary force: the intention or purpose underlying the act of saying sth. (speaker‘s meaning) e.g. You have left the door wide open

the locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words ―you‖ ―have‖ ―door‖ ―open‖ etc. and expressed what the words literally mean. locutionary: utterance of all the word the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of speaking ,i.e. asking sb. to close the door. ―or making a complaint

the prelocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker‘s message and sees the speaker means to ask someone to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the prelocutionary act is successfully performed. perlocutionary: the hearer close the door or his refusal to comply with the request . Searle‟s classification of speech acts

What Searle‟s classfication of illocutionary acts?言外行为的划分

What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?

Speech acts theory aroused great interest among scholars in the 1960‘s and 1970‘s. One of those who made notable contribution to it is the American philosopher linguist John Searle. He made classification of illocutionary acts. According to Searle, speech acts fall into five general categories. Representatives表述句-----: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 说话者保证所表述的命题是真的。

The film is moving.

I have never seen the man before.

Directives指令句:----- trying to get the hearer to do sth, 说话者企图让听话人做某件事。

You‘d better go to the clinic Open the window!

Commisives受约句----: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action说话者保证将来采取某些行动。

I promise to come here at 7:00

Expressives表情句------: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.表达说话者的一种心理状态。

It‘s very kind of you to help me. I‘m sorry for the mess I have made

Declarations宣布句------: bring about immediate changes by saying sth.说话者的话将引起规约事态的变化。

I appoint you monitor of the class. I now declare the meeting open

Representatives----sentences that commit the speaker to the truth of something. Typical cases are ―I think the train is moving.‖ And ―I‘m sure John has stolen the book‖. The degree of commitment varies from statement to statement. The commitment is small in ―I guess John has stolen the book‖ but very strong in ―I solemnly swear that John has stolen the book.‖

Directives----sentences by which the speaker tries to get the hearer to do something. ―I beg you to give me some help‖ and ―I order you to do it right now‖ are both attempts to get something done by the hearer. Among the verbs that fall into this group are ―ask‖ ―plead‖ ―entreat‖ ―command‖, or ―advise‖. Commsives-----sentences that commit the speaker to some future action. Promises and offers are characteristic of these acts. Interestingly, warning is also a commissive , as in ―If you do that again, I‘ll hit you‖, because it also commits the speaker to doing something.

Expressives-----sentences that express the speaker‘s psychological state about something, verbs typically used for this category are ―thank ‖ ‖congradulate ‖ ―apologize‖ ―welcome‖ ―deplore‖.

Declaratives-----sentences that bring about immediate change in existing state of affairs. As soon as an employer says to an employee ―You are fired‖, the employee loses his job. Verbs often used for declarations are ―name‖ ―christen‖ ―nominate‖ ―point‖ or ―declare‖. Representatives:

The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something‘s being the case, to the truth of what has been said. In other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives. For example: (I swear) I have never seen the man before. (I state ) the earth is a globe. Directives:

Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class. For example: Open the window! You‘d better go to the clinic.

Your money or your life! Would you like to go to the picnic with us? Commissives:

Commsives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e, when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases.

For example: I promse to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.

Expressives:

The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards and existing state of affairs, e.g, apologing, thanking, congratulating.

For example: I‘m sorry for the mess I have made. It‘s really kind of you to have thought of me. Declarations:

The succesful performance of an act of declarations brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.

For examples: I now declare the meeting open. I appoint you chairman of the committee. I fire you!

3．All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their force or strength. E.g.

(1)I swear he is the killer. (strong belief)

I believe / think he is the killer. (less strong belief) I guess he is the killer. (weaker belief) (2)Close the door Will you close the door Do you mind closing the door? I would be very grateful if you could Close the door! The door is open! The door please!

Whatever act we perform with language can be categorized into one of these 5 kinds. 8.2. The theory of conversational implicature会话含义理论

As the objective of pragmatic study is to explain how language is used to effect successful communication, conversation, as the most common and natural form of communication, has drawn the attention of many scholars.

The theory was proposed by another Oxford philosopher H. P. Grice. in his lectures under the title of ―Logic and conversation‖. conversational

implicature------

the

extra

meaning

not

contained

in

the

literal

utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker‘s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.

会话含义指话语的言外之意，往往是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意，含有绘画含义的话语，即说者能说，听者能懂的话语，需要具有以下三个条件： A、.双方具有一定的知识。

B、说者对准则的违反一次不超过一个

C、双方都有或不反对含混，双关，歧义，讽刺，比喻，夸张，幽默等手法。 8.2.1. The co-operative principle (CP )合作原则

Grice noticed that in daily conversation people do not usually say things directly but turn tend to

imply them. He coined the term ―implicature‖ to refer to such implied meaning. And he explored the question how people manage to convey implicature, which is not explicitly expressed.

According to Grice, in making conversation, the participant must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the task. These general principle is called the cooperative Principle, abbreviated as cp.

To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims. (conversational maxims) It‘s interesting and important to note that those maxims are not always strictly observed. Rather, for various reasons they are of ten violated or ―flouted‖, to use Grice‘s term. Some of these violations give rise to ―conversational implicatuses‖,

What are the four maxims of the CP? How does the violation of these maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?

The co-operative principle, proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis , is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.合作原则：会话是人们在交际过程中的对话。美国逻辑学家和哲学家p. 格赖斯在对会话进行考察之后认为，会话受到一定条件的制约，为了使人们的交谈不至于成为一连串的，不连贯的“胡言乱语”，会话双方或多方，需要向一个共同的目的或一组目的互相配合地作出努力。这就要求大家要遵守一定的原则，这就是格赖斯所称的“合作原则”，它包括四条准则： The cooperative pinciple has the following four maxims: ( 1) the maxim of quantity 数量的准则 a. b.

Make you contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange.)使所说的话正好满足当前交谈的需要的信息。

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.说出的话语所含的信息量既不能太多，也不能太少，只要满足交谈目的的信息量即可。所说的话不要多于需要的信息。 (2) the maxim of quality质量的准则

Try to make your contribution one that is true.

a. Do not say what you believe to be false. 所说的话要求真实。不要说自知是虚假的话。 b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说缺乏足够证据的话。说出的话尽可

能真实，有证可查，至少是自己信以为真的话。 (3) the maxim of relation 关联准则 Make your contribution relevant.

Be relevant. 要有关联。说出的话要切题，不说与主题，论题或话题无关的话。 (4) the maxim of manner 方式准则

Be prespicious and specific. 要清晰。说话清楚明白，简练而且有条理，避免含混和歧义。 a. Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免晦涩 b. Avoid ambiguity 避免歧义

c. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) 要简练 。 d. Be orderly. 要有序。

H. P. Grice believes that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances. He suggests that there is a set or assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the cooperative principle (CP). He formulates the principle and its maxims as follows:

Make your contribution such is required at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged. And this principle is known as the COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE, or CP for short.使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。这个原则叫合作原则，简写成CP。 The examples of CP (1) the maxim of quantity

A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?

B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.

This is said when it is known to both A and B does know Mr.X‘s address. Thus B is withholding some of the information required and is flouting the maxim of quantity. The implicature produced is ―I do not wish to tell you where Mr.X lives.‖ (2)the maxim of quality

A: Would you like to come to our party tonight? B: I‘m afraid I‘m not feeling so well today.

This is said when it is known to both A and B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and is flouting the maxim of quality. The implicature produced is ―I do not want to go to your party gonight.‖ (3)the maxim of relation

A: The hostess is an awful one. Don‘t you think? B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren‘t they?

This is when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostness. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said,and flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature produced is ―I don‘t wish to talk about the hostness in such a rude manner.‖ (4) the maxim of manner

A:Shall we get something for the kids? B:Yes. But I vote. I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word ―ice-cream‖. Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The implicature produced is ―I don‘t want the kids to kown we are talking about ice-cream.‖ 8.2.2. Violation of the maxims准则的违背

Conversational implicature can only be worked out on the basis of the CP.会话含义只有依赖合作原则才能推导出来。

a. quality (tell lie; rhetoric device) e.g. Paul is made of iron. (metaphor)

[Paul has some properties similar to those of iron.] You are the cream in my coffee. b. quantity

--when is Susan‘s farewell party? --sometime next month

--we‘ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won‘t we? --well, we‘ll all miss BILL.

[we didn‘t miss Agatha]

tautology e.g. War is war. [War is cruel.]

--Bob is really very mischievous. --Children are children

c. relation

--How do you like my painting?

--I don‘t have an eye for beauty, I‘m afraid [I don‘t like it at all]

--what do you think of the lecture? --I thought the lecture had was too big. [The lecture was dull or boring.] d. manner

--where is your mother?

--she‘s either in the house or at the market. [I don‘t now exactly where]

8.2.3. Characteristics of implicature 含义的特征 1．Calculability 可推导性

The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. They can be worked out on the basis of some previous information.说话人试图传达他的会话含义，而听话人也能理解这些会话含义，这一事实说明，会话含义是可推导的。它们可以根据已知信息被推导出来。 2. Cancellability 可取消性

Cancellability is also known as defeasibility.可取消性也被称为可废除性。

Implicature can be cancelled by additional clauses. 通过增加句子可以取消原来的含义。 A conversational implicature may even be cancelled simply by the situational context.会话含义也可以只通过情景语境来清楚。 3. non-detachability 不可分离性

By non-detachability is meant that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. In other words, an implicature will not be detached, separated form the utterance as a whole, even though the specific words may be changed.不可分离性是说，会话含义是依附于话语的语义内容，而不是语言形式。因此，我们能用同义成分来替换话语的某一部分，而不改变原来的含义。话句话说就是，即使改变话语的具体词语，会话含义也不会因此从整个话语中分离出来。

4. non-conventionality 非规约性

entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.‖Mary is running‖entails,among other things,‖Mary is not standing still‖.

Entailment is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the the first follows from the falsity of the second.衍推反映的是两个句子之间的逻辑关系，第一个句子是真，第二个句子就一定是真；第二个句子是假，第一个句子就一定是假。

Entailment is a part of the conventional meaning.衍推是规约意义的部分。

8.3 Post-Gricean development 后格莱斯时期的发展 1. 8.3.1 Relevance theory

An assumption is relevant in a context iff it has some contextual effect in that context  The three types of contextual effect a. Contextual implication

(1) A: Could you have a quick look at my printer––it‘s not working right. B: I have got an appointment at eleven o‘clock. (2) a. There are only five minutes until eleven o‘clock.

b. The printer problem is not an obvious one, but will require opening it up. c. Opening the printer will take more than five minutes. (3) A is not able to have a look at the printer now.

b. Strengthening/confirmation of contextual assumption (4) A: I have a hunch that Gill is looking for a new job.

B: Yeah, she is studying job ads whenever she‘s got a spare minute.

(5) Someone reading job ads is probably looking for a new job. c. Elimination of a previously held assumption

(6) A: We have to call another meeting. I don‘t think that Christine is going to come, so we‘ll be one

person short of a quorum.

B: No need for cancellation, I see Christine just coming up the drive. ostensive communication明示交际------: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.

.communicative principle of relevance关联原则------:every act of ostensive communication

communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一个明示交际行动，都传递一种假设 ：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。 明示-推理： ostensive-inferential 明示交际： ostensive communication 推理交际： inferential communication

.relevance关联性----: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have. 8.3.2 The Q-and R-principle 数量原则和关系原则

Q-principle-----: one of the two principles in Horn‘s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q)

constraints on Horn scales荷恩等级的约束-----:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.. 8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles 数量原则，信息原则和方式原则

division of pragmatic labour语用劳动分工-----: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less‖effortful‖)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed). 3.4. Conclusion

―Conversational implicature‖, according to Paul Grice, refers to the extra meaning not contained in

the utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker‘s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the 4 maxims of the CP. 第九章

.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.

.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.

.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. .indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. .indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech. .narrator‟s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.

.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.

.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late. .fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.

.narrator‟s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.

.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late. .free indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.

.narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.

.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their

characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late. .direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech.

第十章

Chapter 10 Language and Computer语言和计算机

1．Computer system计算机系统------The machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk

drives,programs,etc. is known as a computer system.计算机本身是有键盘、打印机、屏幕、磁盘驱动器和程序等组成，我们称之为计算机系统。

2．Computer literacy计算机操作能力-----it refers to those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and compute software. 计算机操作能力，特指那些能使用计算机并具有大量计算机软件知识和技巧的人。

3．Computational linguistics计算机语言学-----it can be seen as a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.看作是应用语言学的分支，即通过计算机处理人类语言。 4．Computational linguistics includes:计算机语言学包括 A the analysis of language data 对语言数据的分析

B . electronic production of artificial speech (speech synthesis) and the automatic recognition of human speech 人类语言的电子生成（言语合成）和人类语言的自动识别

C . research on automatic translation between natural languages在自然语言之间的自动翻译

D . text processing and communication between people and computers.语篇处理和人与计算机的交流 10.1 Computer-assisted language learing (CALL)计算机辅助语言学习 10.1.1 CAL / CAI vs CALL

1. CAL:computer-assisted learning 计算机辅助学习emphasizes the use of a computer in both teaching and learning in order to help the learner achieve educational objectives.强调在教和学两方面使用计算机，帮助学习者达到学习目标。

2. CAI: computer-assisted instruction 计算机辅助教学，aims ate seeing educational problems on the part of the teacher.注重于教师教的问题

3. CALL:computer-assisted language learning, refers to the use of computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. 计算机辅助语言学习，指的是将计算机运用到第二语言或外语的教学中去。

4. CAI or CAL deals with teaching and learning in general, CALL deals with language teaching and learning in particular.CAI或CAL是处理一般的教与学，CALL则是用来处理语言教学的。 10.1.2 Phases of CALL development CALL的发展阶段 10.1.3 Technology技术

(1). Customizing, template, and authoring program.定制、模块和编程 (2). Computer networks 计算机网络

Local area networks局域网 : short for LAN, which are computers together by cables in a classroom, lab, or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with the target language.指在教室、实验室或其他建筑里，计算机通过光缆连接在一起。他们教师们提供了一种新颖的方式，来创造新的活动，对学生而言就是对目标语言提供更多的时间和经验。

(3). Compact disk technology. 激光盘技术

Compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM)激光可视盘-------allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quick access to the infromation. Students and teachers can access informatin quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.激光可视盘使得大量信息储存在一张磁盘上，以便快速获取信息。学生和教师能够快速有效地在课内或课后使用信息。 (4). Digitized sound. 数字化语言。

CD-I : compact disk-interactive 交互式激光盘

10.2 Machine translation 机器翻译-----short for MT, it refers to the use of machine (usually computers) to translate texts from one language to another.指利用机器（通常是计算机）把文本从一种语言翻译到另一种语言。

10.2.1 History of development 发展历史

(1). The independent work by MT researchers MT研究者的工作 (2). Towards good quality output 瞄准高质量的输出

FAHQT： Fully automatic quality translation 全自动高质量翻译 (3). The development of translation tools. 翻译工具的发展 10.2.2 Research methods 研究方法

MT research methods can be represented from two perspective, one is from the application of linguistic theories, another from what has been actually practiced by MT researchers. MT研究方法可以从两个方面来叙述，一方面是语言学理论的运用，一方面是MT研究者们实际所从事的内容。 (1).Linguistic approach语言学的方法

MT research has been regarded as a field in which new linguistic formalisms or new computational techniques can be tried out . In other words, MT has been seen as a test-bed for linguistic theories, because the quality of MT and translation can be judged by non-experts. MT研究已经被看做一个试验新的语言形式或新的计算技术的领域。换言之，MT已经被视为语言理论的实验床，因为MT和翻译的质量能由非专家来判断。

The relevant theories were information theory, categorical grammar, transformational-generative grammar, dependency grammar, and stratificational grammar in the 1950s and 1960s; artificial intelligence, non-linguistic knowledge bases, formalisms such as lexical-functional grammar, generalized phrase structure grammar, head-driven phrase structure grammar, definite clause grammar, priciples and parameters, Montague semantics in the 1970s and 1980s, neural networks, connectionism, parallel processing , and statistical methods and others in the 1990s.与之相关的理论有：20世纪50年代和60年代的信息理论，范畴语法，转换生成语法，从属语法，和层次语法；70年代和80年代的人工智能，非语言知识基础，诸如词汇功能语法，广义短语结构语法，中心词驱动短语结构语法，有定从句语法，原则和参数，70年代和80年代的蒙太古语法等这些形式主义；90年代的神经系统网络，连接注意，平行处理，和统计学方法以及其他理论。 (2). The practical approaches实践的方法

this can be further divided into 3 strands 实践的方法可进一步分为3条线索 a. The transfer approach转移法 b. The interlingual approach 语际法

c. Knowledge-based approach 基于知识的方法 10.2.3 MT quality MT的质量

10.2.4 MT and the Internet MT和互联网

10.2.5 Spoken langauge translation 口语翻译 10.2.6 MT and human translation MT和人工翻译 10.3 Corpus linguistics 语料库语言学 Computer corpora 计算机语料库 10.3.1

Corpus, plrual coruora A collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a trancription of recorded speech. The main purposes of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language-----for example, to determine the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.语料，复数形式corpora： 一个语言数据的存储，可是是被编辑为书面文本，也可以是被作为录音言语的译本。语料的主要目的是鉴定一个语言的假说------例如，确定一个特定的语音，单词，或句法结构的使用如何变化。

Corpus Linguistics deals with the priciples and practice of using corpora in language study. A computer corpus is a large body of machine-readab;e texts.语料库语言学：论述语言研究中使用语料的原理和实践。一个计算机语料库是机器可读文本的重要躯干。

10.3.2 Criticisms and the revival of corpus linguistcis语料库语言学受到的批判及其复兴

10.3.3 Concordance 共现关系------the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also retrieve all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered。We may then be interested in sorting in some way-----for example, alphabetically on words occruing in the immediate context of the word. This is usually referred to as a concordance.计算机有能力搜索一个特

定的词，词汇的顺序，甚至一个文本里的某一个词类。计算机也能检索一个词所有的实例，通常是在上下文里，这对语言学家是更有力的帮助。它还能计算机一个词出现的次数，从而收集到有关这个词的频率的信息。然后，我们可以饶有兴趣地以某种方式对数据进行分类---例如，按字母顺序将出现在紧接着某个词的上下文里的词进行分类。这通常被称为共现关系。 10.3.4 Text encoding and annotation 文本编辑和注解

Annotation注解-----if corpora is said to be unannotated------it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.如果语料被说成是无注解的，这指它以其存在的自然状态出现在简单的文本里，而有注解的语料通过各种各样类型的语言信息得到增强。

10.3.5 The roles of corpus data 语料库数据的作用 a. Speech research 言语研究 b. Lexical studies 词汇研究 c. Senmantics 语义学

d. Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 e. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学

10.4 Infromation retrieval 信息检索------ the term conventionally, though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of activity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not inform (i.e.change the knowledge of) the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence (or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.信息检索习惯上是指本书所探讨的那类活动的术语，虽然不十分精确。信息检索系统不会通知用户查询的内容，它仅仅告诉用于是否存在在和哪里存在与它查询有关的信息。 10.4.1 Scope defined 范围

Automatic information retrieval system, automatic as opposed to manual and information as opposed to data or fact. 自动信息检索系统，自动是相对于人工而言，信息是相对于数据和事实而言。 DR: data retrieval 数据检索

IR: infromation retrieval 信息检索

10.4.2 An infromation retrieval system 信息检索系统

A typical IR can be illustrated by the following diagram, which shows three components : input, processor and output.一个典型的信息检索系统由三部分组成：输入，处理 和输出。 10.4.3 Three main areas of research 三个主要的研究领域

(1). Content analysis Content analysis is concerned with describing the contents of documents in a form suitable for computer processing. 内容分析，是描述文档内容，便于计算机处理。

(2). Infromation structure-------Infromation structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval. 信息结构 信息结构指文档之间的关系，用来提高检索策略的有效性。它包含信息的逻辑组织，如为了信息检索需要的文档关键词。

(3). Evaluation ------Evaluation is concerned with the measurement of the effectiveness of retrieval.评估 评估是关于检索有效性的检测。

Precision精确度------the propotion of retrieval documents which are relevant.检索出相关文档的比例。 Recall记忆-------the propotion of relevant documents retrieved.有关文档被检索出的比例 10.5 Mail and news 邮件和新闻

FYI: stands for ―for your information‖ 为你提供的信息