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Comparative Research on Double-entry in China, Italy and South Korea

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维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com

Feb.2006,Vo1.2,No.2(Serial No.9) Journal of Modern Accounting and Auditing,ISSN1548—6583,USA Comparative Research on Double—entry in China,Italy and South Korea Jianming Xiaolin f Chongqing.Institute ofTechnology Abstract:This paper explores the different view about the origin of double—entry book-keeping that arises m bank account of Florence.Italy in 1 3 century.The four-leg accounts in China were to some extent similar to that in Korea in 1 1 m century and the three—leg accounts to that in ancient Rome period.By analysis of accounting bamboo slips in Han dynasty in 2“ and 1 centuries B…C this paper will demonstrate that the double—entry book-keeping method emerged from China and Italy. Key words:Italy;China;Korea;double—enty book-keeping metrhod;emergence;comparison 1.A Pervasive Error Argument When we open fundamental accounting textbooks.which state how the double entry emerges,all the textbooks agree that in the 1 3‘“centuryit originated from bank accounting of Florence of Italy.This view has ,been accepted by majority of experts on accounting.What shape is bank account?Why is it regarded as a kind of double entry?Whether is it the earliest double enty irn Italy or in the world?In order to find a clue,we have thoroughly looked for accounting reference books and at last found evidence in a book 70 years ago written by a Japanese expert named Hezeqing on accounting.In his book he made an introduction in detail as follow:‘'as for accomplishment of double entry,the first contributor was a post record in the bank accounts in Florence in 13“。 century.”‘‘This bank account should be works in 1 22 1….In those bank accounts,creditor and debtor are separated for every customer and thus transactions between customers are often recorded as creditor side and debtor side.This method from a creditor customer to another debtor customer is the basis for double—entry and it is the origin ofworld stndaard language(Dr and Cr)applied in book-keeping.’’ point we should pay attention to is that the bank account of Florence only enters the names of customers nd the method of debita and credit’s transfer is diferent from that today.In that method,there are two book-kceping sides remained for each customer,one is no di dare.and another is di avere.However the wo tsides arrange up nd adown,not left and irght,therefore they re adifferent rfom the left side(debit)and irght side(credit) toda y.No di dare means that‘he must give us’,which is claim to client(debit).Di avere means that‘he shall ave’h,that is obligation to client(credit).As for the usage of title no di dare and di avere has changed over time. No didareis replacedwimDe dare ordoverdare. The amounts some one should repay(dover dare)my firm on some day =the amounts some oneborrowsfrommyfirm. he amounts some one shoulTd collect(dover avere)from my fim on some day=the amountrs some one lends my fim.r.....................................................................—— ’Jianming Yi,lecturer of School of Accounting,Chongqing Institute of Technology;Main research field:International Accounting, Accounting heoriTes;Address:School ofAccounting,Chongqing Institute ofTechnology. ”Xiaolin Li,professor of School of Accounting,Chongqing Instiute of tTechnology;Main research field:International Accounting, Comparative International Accounting Theories,Accounting History;Address:School of Accounting,Chongqing Instiute of tTechnology. 16 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com

Comparative Research on Double—entry in China,Italy and South Korea But,from the viewpoint that the debit and credit derives from transfer records,the primitive root of double—entry book-keeping should be found. Above illustration,“my firm”as a trade entity with some one,that is accounts receivable—some one.The upper column records as debit side and the below column as credit side,are two entries of different transactions. Because the features of double・-entry book・-keeping are that every transaction should enter two corresponding accounts both equally and clearly so as to take a trial balnace.Therefore single trade account has not represented hte double—entyr. Trade and cash accounts are the earliest accounts.In China,there existed trade and cash accounts from nacient time.According to the book Zhouli.Diguan.Quanfu:“for one to borrow money,he must pay back within 10 days for general ceremony and within 3 months for funeral ceremony.’’Because there are many people who borrowed from Quanfu including money and goods and there were different mature days of repayment,the Quanfu in the 1 3 century,were certainly to set tarde accounts ofr each person.The current accounts between the east and west countries were created in slavery societies,even earlier.More than 1 00 years ago,some Russina experts on accounting regarded trade accounts as earliest accounting approach,this view has be questioned by the evidence tl1at until hte Chinese character was created,the ethnic minoriyt Vazu had the records of debit and credit scripted on woods. According to the book Yun Meng Qin Jian,of which,the Gold Rules of the Qin dynasty was set in 3 。or 4“ century B.C.stating:“If the one who owed to one county government move to another count ̄then the new county government should be responsible for the collection of loans.If official who owed to the public move to naother county,then the old county government should be responsible for hte repayment of hte loans.’’Because law has concrete regulation for both claims and obligations and therefore there should be trade accounts.The regulations by law should be followed.The book Jiang Ling Han Jian written in 2 。century BC is the oldest rtade account for grain and another book Ju Yan Han Jian is the oldest trade account for cash.An article wriRen by an American reads:“the Chinese is the earliest people who use negative number,as early as 1 ‘century BC they utilized chips as positive number to record creditor and black chips as negative number to record debto ̄’’The History ofMathematics wriRen by Arthur Li rtaces the date of negative number used by Chinese back to the 2 century BC.And hterefore our country is one of the pioneers for hte utilization of trade accounts. For one transaction,both entering trade account and equally entering cash account or physic account can reflect clearly its origin and development so to have some features of double—entry book—keeping.Entering trade account is only the bud of double.entry book-keeping,not the method of double—entry book-keeping.Because the trade account does not reflect the transactions clearly,its relation to hte cash account or phy sical account is not so closely as to have a trial balance.With the development of trade account,the double-entry book—keeping arises. The practice of rtade account is only pregnant with the double—entry book-keeping,but not mean the birth of it. We do not deny that the bank account of Florence belongs to double-entry book—keeping,we mean its illustrations of trade accounts are not complete enough to be the evidence of double—entyr book keeping.As a matter Of fact.the illustration mentioned is the transfer of bank rtansactions and the entity of records is‘'my firm'’, tl1e baJ1k enters the rtansactions between A and B firm into relevant accounts to reflect double—entry book-keeping. hTis is what Professor Zeqing Hei means,besides,the bank account of Florence in 1 3m century is not the earliest account to reflect double..entry book.keeping even in Italy or the rest of hte world. 17 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com

Comparative Research on Double-entry in China,Italy and South Korea 2.Debate on the Features Of DOuble-entry Book-keeping The argument on time and place of double-entry book—keeping has existed more than 1 00 years.Even in Italy, where there are theories of ancient Rome,medieval castles,1 3 “century,and 1 5 century,the difference of time has reached up to 2000 years.The main reason for these the different theories is the understanding of the fundamental features of double・entry book-keeping,summed up as follows: (1)Two French experts studied the customs accounts and the records for disbursement of merchandise and ofr revenues of cash.From their studies,tl1ey conclude that the hometown of modem accounting is in Yadian of Greece.But the problems we do not know are whether the double records have expanded to the equity accounts nad the accounts for the results of operation.It isn’t clear whether there exist equity accounts and accounts for the results of operation. (2)Professor Bingyan Liu said,when the ancient Rome slaves make an entry ofr their masters htere rae two kinds of accounts,one is cash account nad the other is trade account.While the slaves collected the money paid by their masters,they entered the money into cash account and entered hte money into trade account at the same time. If the slave practiced usurious loans,he entered cash account and trade account.And this is the origin of double-entry bookkeeping. These two theories agree that it is double・・entry book・・keeping for every cash transaction to enter both cash account and trade account. (3)From the nacient Rome papers of 191—192 years B.C.we can see wto-sided records,for every trnasaction or event to illustrate its origin and development. (4)Professor Daoyang Guo once pointed out,for double-entyr-bookkeeping method,there should be five basic characteristics as follows: First,application of double-entry,every transaction or event should equally enter relevant accounts. Second,application of scientific systems of account charts,accounts are set according to the account charts nad recorded with hte method of double—entyr ofr all rtnasactions and events. Third,scientiifc account system is used. Fourth,the principles of double-entry are set according to the cycling of rtansactions.Accounting equation is set according to the principles of double—entry.All accounts should be tested according to the accounting equation. Fifth,there should be some sound systems of accounting methods. These fundamental or mature features are for modem dOuble-entry method,but not for the birth of double-entry method.The later four standards belong to other accounting methods or theories and are not the marks for the birth of double.entry method.Otherwise。the bank account of Florence in 1 3 “century,even the Italian account in 15m century is not classiifed as double—entyr accounts for it isn’t identical to hte ofur stnadarsd. For double-entry method,essential elements are different from single—entry method and do not mean the mature or grow up of double—entry method. 3.Comparison between Four-leg accounts and Sagae Songdo Chibu-bop In former China,the accounts used by commercial sectors have different forms and could be summed up as wto categories;they are three-leg account and four-leg account.One commercial dictionary published in the 30 years of last century states:“the double—entyr book-keeping for former Chinese accounts are referred to as l8 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com

Comparative Research on Double—entry in China,Italy and South Korea four-leg accounts.For one transaction is entered into two lines,the upper line enters the origin and under lnie enters the development.But the amounts of two lines should be equal,or there should be wrong with the transaction.’’This dictionary gives two illustrations:a store purchases grain for 1200 Yuan and sells it for 1250 Yuan.The transactions are recorded as follows: The signs of four-leg accounts are origin,development,revenue and disbursement or collc2tion and payment, htereisnouniformedforms. A South Korean professor Genghao Yin,the accountant institute of Australia and some Japanese experts consider the Sagae songdo Chibu—bop of 1 1—1 2 centuries as double—entry book—keeping method.Professor Genghao Yin wrote hte book Studies on Accounting History ofKorean and worked on Sagae Songdo Chibu—bop. The Sagae Songdo Chibu—bop originated from the capital Songdo when it was in the gold times of Korean (1010.1274).The Sagae Songdo Chibu-bop was used maong royal fmailies,aristocrats and irch businessmen till 1 920.The Sagae refers to as the payer,the payee,the given and the taken.It is obviously similar to the four-leg account.Korean were written in Chinese characters till the 1 5tn century,a lot of scholars created Korean characters when the forth generation king(1418--1450)ofKorean ikngdom(1392-・1910)was in power. IIl the book Studies on Accounting History ofKorean。eleven illu【strations were wfinen in Chinese and small characters were written in Suzhou Code.The pronunciation of Chibu was as same as Chinese character Zhibu and htetermsZhibu canbefoundinthebookJu YanHanJian.Therefore.we canunderstandthe relationshipbetween Sagae Songdo Chibu—bop and Chinese account.The Sagae Songdo Chibu-bop traces the birth of Chinese four-leg account back up to 1 1m century ̄even earlier. 4.Comparison between Three—leg Accounts and the Bank Accounts of Medieval Castles Three.1eg account is entering equally two accounts for one transaction on credit and entering one account for cash transaction.For a cash account,it has two lines,the upper line enters revenue and the below line records disbursement.In several days the revenue and disbursement will be figured out to arrive at a balance,to verify if the balance is identical to the cash in a safe.So it is called a running account.Running account replaces cash account and closes a balance so as to verify the cash in a safe.Accounts are vertically recorded with the entering sing(coming、and(going).The entering process is illustrated as:source document_running accounts’ledger accounts.The running accounts equal to the books of entries in the aspects of entries,functions.An-other similar illustration is from the book Accounting Evolution to 1 900 by A.C.Linleton.It gives three entries:the first entry is cash revenue that is Dr:cash,Cr:accounts payable—Anthony,the second entry is cash disbursement and the htird entry is transaction on credit.According to the given illustrations we can arrive at the result that three_leg account once existed in hte history of China and other countries. We have already pointed out and proved the tree一1eg account belong to the growing up stage of double’entry bookkeeping methods.From former illustrations,business transaction on credit entering two accounts is obviously double.entry method;cash transactions entering one account can reflect double—entyr method,in nature they are eaua1 to modem cash receipts and cash payments.We could not deny that they fal1 into the primitive categories of double-entry method for transactions are descriptive without the modem form of entries.The bank account of l9 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com

ComparativeResearch on Double-entry in China,Italy and South Korea Florence in 1 3也century is descriptive and without forms of modem entryit is generally accepted double—entry ,book-keeping method in accountng ihistory.Here is a cash journal,which was once used by German businessmen inlate 18 century;itsformis asfollows: Table 1 Cash Journal Debtor Date explanation amounts Date Creditor explanation amounts 3 l lO 20 Beginning balance Goods Accounts receivable 3000 600 l000 3 l lO 20 Goods Accounts payable goods 500 2000 400 2900 Ending balance 4600 l700 4600 At hatt time,journals were clssiaifed as cash journal nd atransfer journa1.First,cash transaction entered one account;credit ransaction tentered two accounts,and then transferred to ledgers.Until now,his method of entering has been popular among some small—scaled enterprises. Viewed from principle,major method and process,the three—leg account is agreeable with the American special journal and wiht the Russin speciaal journal,as well as Chinese multiple—column journa1.It is not reasonable for he three—leg accountt to be excluded rom doublfe—entry method. 5.Ancient Rome Account and Some nanjian Represent the Birth of Double-entry Book-keeping Italian scholars D.Murry and P.Kats consider that double—entry book-keeping originates from Rome when Rome was in public periods.A Japanese expert states the accounting of ancient Rome in detail:there were cash journals of receipts and payments for nobles and slaves.According to Roma laws,nobles had equity claims to heitr agents and slaves.When the nobles gave cash to their agents,the transaction entered the payment column of cash journal or fnobles nd aentered he treceipt column of cash journal orf heitr agents.Scholr aShuo w_en summed he transacttions up as agent accounts: Table 2 Agent Accounts Accounting events Cash received from nobles Debtor Cash account Creditor Master’s account Loans for third person Loans received The name ofborrower Cash journal Cash journal The name ofborower Interest received Interest occurred Cash journal The name ofborower Master’s account Master’s account 肠en he introduced ancient Rome records that come and went the Russin experta pointed out:some critics considered he trecords,for he tcomplete meanings of a transaction,as transfer of account.The transfer of account only reports cash transactions and settlements between payer and payee. In2000years ago。thereweretransaction recordsinourcountryfromthebookJu YanHanJian.Two records clearly recorded the title of revenue。amounts。the name of collector,and time.These records set a precedent for double-entry method.They agree wih tthe theory of value movement in double-entry method. 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com

Comparative Research on Double-entry in China,.Italy and South Korea he 5m wooden slips Among the Wooden Slips excavated in Hubei,most of them are accounting documentst,are semiannual reports of revenues,there are two parts,one part enters the revenue and another part enters the disbursements.We should pay attention:first,the 5m wooden slips are reports of revenues;secondthe blank sign ,of receipt or payments sets a precedent for the three—leg account.It is popular in some special journals even in contemporary accounting.Besides,they are ancient financial statements or accounts,we should judge whether hey coultd represent double—entires,we should not require them to be identical to contemporary entries in the orm.f Since the 5th wooden slips are comprehensive reports or accountsthere should be running accounts to meet ,he needs of ttax revenues and it is necessary for records to enter timely time,place,tax bracket,tax—payer and amSunts.Comparing the wood slips with the cash account of Florence,the later accounts enter trnsaactions into two accounts,from one account and one entry,the relationship of relevant accounts is not close.Meanwhile,the wooden slips can reflect in one account the relevant accounts for every transaction and can more clearly report the origin and development of every transaction.Therefore,the wooden slips represent the features of double—entry book—keeping. Professor Zhi Cheng lists 72 kinds of account titles,in which there are accounts for receipt and payment of mone ̄for receipt and payment of grain,for expenses of salaries,for liabilities of bonds,and for settlement of equity and obligation.For one entry to enter the purchase of grain or cash disburse,there should be relevant accounm to reflect the transaction.The wooden slips further prove the relationship of relevant accounts n irecois.d According to the wooden slips of the first and 2叫centuriesin our opinion,Chinese double—entry ,book-keeping arises in primary Xihan dynasty and we produce new evidence in suppo ̄of a theory,that is the Chinese double—enty rbook-keeping coincides witll Italy. References" i.Daoyang Guo.The OutBne ofAccounting Development,CCTV and Broadcast Publish Press,1 984 2.Shuo Wen.The Western Accounting History,China Commercial Publish Press,i 987 3.Xiaolin Li,Yong Luo.The Comparative Researches between China and Foreign Countries,Science and Technology Literatures Publish Press.1 996 4.Zeqing He.The Or ̄in ofDouble・enty rBookkeeping Method,Journal ofAccounting,1 934(3) 5.Sokelov.The Development History ofAccounting,China Commercial Publish Press,1 990 (EditedbyLifenZhang,JieZhouand JianfengHe) 21 

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